Laws & Regulations

Brunei Darussalam has no structured coordinating ministries working on marine plastic litter. However, two authorities deal with waste management to combat marine plastic litter: the Department of Environment, Parks and Recreation (Ministry of Development) and the Municipal Department (Ministry of Home Affairs). The former oversees environmental planning and manages the waste facilities for the entire country while the latter assists in waste collection and management in municipal areas such as Bandar Seri Begawan, Tutong, and Kuala Belait–Seria (Government of Brunei Darussalam, 2019).

Updated as of 10 January 2025.

Three major laws and regulations tackle marine plastic litter issue in Brunei Darussalam. The Prevention of Pollution of the Sea Order 2005 aims to prevent disposal of waste from ships, including refuse, garbage, effluents, plastics, and dangerous pollutants. Section 5(1) states that ‘… if any disposal or discharge of refuse, garbage, waste matter, trade effluent, plastics or marine pollutant in packaged form occurs from any ship into Brunei Darussalam waters, the master, the owner and the agent of the ship shall each be guilty of an offence …’. Section 16(1) states that any direct or indirect discharge from ships of refuse, garbage, waste, plastics, effluents, and dangerous pollutants into any part of the sea or waters in Brunei Darussalam shall be charged for recovery costs.

The Prevention of Pollution of the Sea (Garbage) Regulations 2008, especially Section 4(1), specifies plastic discharge prohibition, covering all plastics, including but not limited to synthetic ropes, synthetic fishing nets, and plastic garbage bags. The Law of Brunei Chapter 30 Minor Offences Act 1929 prohibits littering in public. Environmental Protection and Management Order 2016, specifically Section 41(1), authorises the minister to make regulations that are necessary or expedient to carry out the order’s provisions. Section 41(2)(f) states that ‘… the Minister may also impose requirements with respect to control of land pollution, including industrial waste, domestic waste and littering’. Hazardous Waste (Control of Export, Import and Transit) Order 2013 prohibits the transboundary movement of plastic waste unless the person importing or exporting is authorised to do so. Following recent amendments to the country’s customs import and excise duties, which took effect on 01 April 2017, the volume of plastic and plastic products for import is to be reduced by imposing a 3% excise duty on them (Ministry of Finance, 2017).

The Ministry of Development has launched campaigns on plastic waste reduction, such as the promotion of reusable bags during the commemoration of World Environment Day in 2008 (Ministry of Development, 2019a). The ‘No Plastic Bag Weekend’ was launched on 26 March 2011 to phase out plastic bag use every Saturday and Sunday, and then every Friday (since 16 February 2012), Thursday (since 19 April 2018), Wednesday (since 11 July 2018), Tuesday (since 02 October 2018), and Monday (since 31 December 2018). In 2013, the Ministry of Development launched a campaign to reduce styrofoam packaging by advising schools to reduce the use of styrofoam containers in their canteens (Ministry of Development, 2019b). Three schools (Sekolah Menengah Sayyidina Hasan, Maktab Duli Pengiran Muda Al-Muhtadee Billah, and Pusat Tingkatan Enam Katok) have successfully followed this campaign.

Local governments have limited regulations to combat marine plastic litter and mainly implement, through their municipal boards, national laws and regulations such as the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea Order 2005, the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea (Garbage) Regulations 2008, and the Environmental Protection and Management Order 2016. Municipal boards comply with the Law of Brunei Chapter 57 Municipal Board 1921, which requires them to take all lawful measures for several purposes, including the removal and disposal of refuse within their areas of control (Section 4). The municipal board has the power to determine levies, especially for sewage treatment and disposal. Section 12 states: ‘An annual rate for the general purposes of this Act, including also the purposes of public lighting, public water supply public sewers, sewage treatment and disposal, and protection from fire, may be imposed upon all lands and upon all houses and buildings within any Municipal Board area not exceeding 15 per centum of their annual value, such rate shall be fixed from time to time by His Majesty in Council after consultation with the Municipal Board and shall be payable by half-yearly instalments in advance without demand by the owners of such lands, houses or buildings in the months of January and July in each year’.

The government has set strategies to reduce the generation of solid waste nationwide through two action plans: waste minimisation through 3-R (Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle) and targeting of a 15% waste recycling rate by 2020 (Energy and Industry Department, 2017) and 30% by 2035 (Akenji et al., 2019).

The 3-R is taking place, particularly amongst the younger generation. The Recycle 123 Handbook, using captivating graphics and a ‘did-you-know’ style of delivering content, targets the youth. In 2009, the Brunei Environment Youth Envoy (EYE) was established under the guidance of the Department of Environment, Parks and Recreation. It aims to (1) nurture and build a network to foster environmental awareness and action amongst youth at the national and regional levels, (2) collaborate and cooperate on environmental sustainability projects, and (3) enhance environmental knowledge and build capacity to share and impart it to the youth (Brunei Darussalam, 2013). The Brunei EYE has successfully carried out 3-R awareness programmes in five primary schools in Kampong Ayer, a water village on the Brunei River, and two inland primary schools (Brunei Darussalam, 2013). The Department of Environment, Parks and Recreation supports several secondary schools through its eco-clubs, which are run by students and guided by teachers to encourage them to be involved in environmental projects and activities such as beach clean-up.

The recycling rate target of 15% by 2027 and 30% by 2035 shall be achieved through waste-reduction efforts, including campaigns to transition to reusable bags, the ‘No Plastic Bag Every Day’ initiative, and reduction of styrofoam containers use; installation of recycling bins for paper, plastics, and metals in waste collection centres in the Brunei Muara District and in other schools and universities; and composting initiatives for green wastes (Brunei Darussalam, 2013).

A related action plan was formulated based on the Tenth National Development Plan (2012–2017): the second 5-year plan under the Brunei Darussalam Long-Term Development Plan (2007–2035). The plan enhances the provision of a healthy and clean environment, including efficient use of national resources, provision and enforcement of legislation, effective solid waste management, and harmonisation of national commitments and international best practices (Department of Economic Planning and Development, 2012).

Several ministries are responsible for Cambodia’s waste management system (Table 1).

Table 1. Ministries Responsible for Waste Management in Cambodia

Source: PPCA et al. (2018).

Cambodia has several national legal frameworks for solid waste management:

Law on Environmental Protection and Natural Resource Management (1996)

Prevention and reduction of environmental hazards, including from waste, are controlled by a Ministry of Environment sub-decree (Article 13).

Inter-Ministerial Declaration of Ministry of Interior-Ministry of Environment on Waste and Solid Waste Management in Province/Municipalities of Cambodia No. 80/2003

The declaration aims to establish efficient solid waste management in provinces and cities to protect health, the environment, and biodiversity (Article 1). The declaration covers all activities related to waste management, including collection, storage, transportation, recycling, and disposal.

Environmental Guidelines on Solid Waste Management in Kingdom of Cambodia (2006)

The regulation consists of five main topics: solid waste management plan, landfill management, composting regulation, medical waste management, and environmental education guideline. The solid waste management plan must be renewed every 5 years and include waste handling, storage, transportation, and disposal mechanisms. Landfills should be properly managed based on environmentally sound management to minimise harm to human, nature, and animal health. The composting ordinance is to enhance environmental protection by processing bio waste into compost to reduce the amount of landfill leachate and biogas. The guideline on medical waste management contains regulations to manage medical waste in a proper and safe technique to maintain public health, environmental quality, and conservation of biological species. Lastly, environmental education guideline aims to make citizens more aware of environmental and natural resources protection and involve them in adopting tangible actions in their daily lives.

Sub-decree on Solid Waste Management (2009)

The goal of the regulation is to protect human health and biodiversity (Curea, 2017) and to target two kinds of solid waste:

1. Household waste. Public disposal of such waste is highly restricted unless done with permission from the authorities (Article 7). Household waste may be exported with approval from the relevant ministries. The import of waste is forbidden (Article 9 and 10).

2. Hazardous waste. Disposing of such waste in public sites is prohibited (Article 15). It should be transported and disposed of separately from household waste. Exporting hazardous waste is allowed with the approval of the Ministry of Environment, Ministry of Trade, and importing countries (Article 20). Importing hazardous waste is restricted (Article 21). Plastic waste from production processes is considered hazardous waste.

Technical Guidelines on Healthcare Waste Management (2011)

The guidelines consist of technical procedures for healthcare waste management, which includes determining factors for installing specific healthcare waste management and deciding criteria for proper designs of facilities.

Sub-decree on Management of Garbage and Solid Waste of Downtowns (2015)

The general aim of this regulation is to improve garbage and solid waste management in the downtowns of Cambodia (Article 1). Several institutions are involved: Ministry of Environment; Ministry of Interior; Ministry of Economy and Finance; provincial administrations; capital and provincial departments of environment; and capital, municipal, district, and commune administrations (Article 5–14). In managing waste, producers of garbage and solid waste have several responsibilities: they should separate and wrap their wastes to prevent leakage (Articles 15–16) and maintain wrapped wastes inside housing areas before they are disposed by the administration (Article 17). Fees for cleaning, collecting, and transporting the wastes are the responsibility of waste producers (Article 18). At a higher level, capital, municipal, and district administrations should provide public garbage bins (Article 22); determine places to temporarily store wastes (Article 24); and provide cleaning, collecting, and transporting services (Article 30). Penalties are imposed against violators of the regulation (Chapter 7).

Sub-decree No. 168 on the Management of Plastic Bags (2017)

The regulation aims to reduce plastic use to enhance the quality of public health, the environment, and the landscape.

Several regulations relate to solid waste management, especially in Phnom Penh (Singh, et al., 2018):

1. Draft Strategy and Methodology for Improving Waste Management and Cleansing, Collection, and Transport of Solid Waste in Phnom Penh

2. Notification on Waste Storage and Waste Discharge, and Penalties for Improper Waste Disposal in Phnom Penh Municipality No. 13 (2013)

3. Instruction on Application of Penalties to Promote Environmental Sanitation in Phnom Penh Municipality No. 09 (2010)

4. Instruction on Waste Separation in Phnom Penh Municipality No. 08 (2010)

5. Instruction on Penalties on Waste Disposal in Public Areas No. 16 (2010)

The National Environment Strategy and Action Plan 2016–2023 supports activities related to solid waste management, such as separation, collection, transport, treatment, and disposal. Sanitary landfill is expected to help solve waste management issues. The action plan reinforces implementation of the reduce, reuse, recycle (3R) principle and volume-based waste collection fees, and encourages solid waste managers to modernize and integrate their operations.

Cambodia is formulating the National Waste Management Strategy Action Plan in collaboration with the Ministry of Environment, United Nations Environment Programme, and Institute for Global Environmental Strategies to accelerate waste management across the country. The plan’s goal is to improve public health, social security, and cities’ environment by 2030. On plastic, the plan states: ‘To improve waste collection coverage in urban areas and minimize the amount of waste in landfills, segregation of organic and plastic waste at source for recycling will be promoted.

The Phnom Penh Waste Management Strategy and Action Plan 2018–2035 aims to create a reliable waste management system and coordinate the efforts of different actors, to minimise the environmental and health impacts frequently caused by improper waste management. The plan has six targets:

1. efficient disposal, collection, and waste management service;

2. advanced recycling through waste separation, engagement with private sector, and promotion of recycled products;

3. efficient waste disposal management and better-quality livelihoods;

4. sound management of special waste – medical, industrial, and electronic; and

5. joint actions with stakeholders.

The first target requires a regulation on city-wide waste separation and behaviour change. The second target is crucial because it requires recycling of plastic.

In general, solid waste management in China is supervised by several ministries (Table 1).

Table 1. Ministries and Their Roles in Solid Waste Management in China

Source: Liu (2017).

Through the Marine Environment Protection Law of China 1999, the country employs several departments that specifically control marine environment protection (Table 2).

Table 2. Departments in Charge of Marine Environment Protection

Source: Government of China (2019).

China has multiple regulations regarding the marine environment:

Marine Environment Protection Law of the People’s Republic of China 1999

This law targets marine environment protection and conservation, pollution prevention, ecological and human health protection, and economic and social sustainability (Article 1). Each individual is obliged to protect the marine environment and uncover any activity that causes marine environment degradation (Article 4). Whoever disposes pollutants into the sea must pay penalty based on the national regulation (Article 11). Additionally, any occurrence that pollutes or could potentially pollute the marine environment must be effectively acted upon, and all parties that could possibly suffer from the incident be notified  (Article 17). Exploitation of natural resources in islands and the surrounding environment must employ strict ecological protection (Article 26).  In the chapter on marine environment damage caused by dumping waste, disposing wastes on China’s territory is highly restricted. Activities permitted to dump wastes into the sea must follow time limits and certain conditions and provide detailed records of the dumping activities (Article 59 and 60). Lastly, wastes generated from incineration are prohibited from being disposed into the sea (Article 61).

Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on the Control Over Dumping Wastes into the Sea Waters 1985

This regulation, created to implement the Marine Environment Protection Law, aims to manage waste dumping into the sea, prevent pollution, achieve ecological balance, and protect marine resources (Article 1). Entities that want to dispose wastes into the sea are obliged to file an application form to the competent authority, containing information about characteristics and composition of their wastes  (Article 6). Wastes coming from other countries and intended for dumping in China are highly prohibited (Article 7). The competent authority must be notified before wastes generated from ships are allowed to enter China’s jurisdiction (Article 8). Foreign ships that intend to explore, exploit, or perform offshore activities must seek approval from the competent authority (Article 9). This regulation lists three categories of wastes. Plastic is prohibited from being dumped into the sea (Article 11). Several conditions, including time limit and provision of recording details, are imposed upon entities that are already permitted to dump wastes into the sea (Article 14). Those that do not follow the regulations and degrade the marine environment must restore the situation to its pre-damaged condition and pay penalties for damage to the environment and parties (Article 17).

Regulations on the Prevention of Pollution Damage to the Marine Environment by Land-based Pollutants

The Marine Environment Protection Law aims to strengthen management and administration of land-based pollution and protect the marine environment from land-based pollution (Article 1). Entities that intend to dispose of land-based pollutants into the sea must follow regulations (Article 5) such as notifying and registering with the environmental protection department (Article 6). A fee is imposed on those who excessively dump land-based pollutants into the sea. The polluters must take charge of pollution control and elimination (Article 7). Discharging solid waste and harmful matters along seashores and beaches must first be approved (Article 11 and 13). Several conditions such as taking prompt measures and reporting to stakeholders must be met by any organisation or individual causing marine environment degradation (Article 22). Lastly, penalties are imposed on those who violate regulations (Article 24-31).

Besides implementing regulations on marine environment protection, China has adopted several laws closely related to waste management:

Cleaner Production Promotion Law 2002

The government shall enact legislation that promotes the use of waste products that can drive recycling activities (Article 9).

Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Prevention and Control of Environmental Pollution by Solid Wastes 2004

This law replaced the 1996 Law on Prevention of Environmental Pollution Caused by Solid Waste (The President of The People’s Republic of China, 1996). Aside from impeding environmental pollution from solid waste, the new law aims to enhance public health, ecological conditions, and sustainable development of the economy and society (Article 1). All units and individuals must be responsible for their own solid waste production by strategically collecting, storing, transporting, utilising, and disposing solid waste (Article 17). The State shall promote research on the manufacture of plastic-sheet covering and packages to foster recycling and create easily degradable commodities (Article 19). Lastly, the law strictly prohibits dumping waste in China’s territory and importing solid waste that cannot be used as raw material (Article 24 and 25).

Circular Economy Promotion Law 2008

This law defines the circular economy as activities that reduce, recycle, and recover products (Article 2). Enterprises must develop strategic management systems to cut resource consumption and waste generation to be able to raise the level of waste recycling and resource recovery (Article 9). Further, enterprises are responsible for recovering, reusing, and disposing of waste based on regulations (Article 15). The State is obliged to encourage citizens to use recycled products (Article 10) and establish buildings to facilitate waste collection and recycling (Article 41).

Environmental Protection Law 2014

This law amends the 1989 law (The President of The People’s Republic of China, 1989) and aims to protect the environment; manage pollution and public hazards; and maintain public health, ecological conditions, and economic and social sustainability (Article 1). Better protection is provided for the marine environment, involving different levels of authorities (Article 34). Issues of general solid waste management are explained in this regulation, where the State is responsible for promoting environment-friendly and recycled products to minimise waste (Article 35 and 36). On a smaller scale, local governments are urged to organise the sorting, separation, and recycling of municipal solid waste (Article 37), while the people are encouraged  to abide by environmental protection laws and regulations and actively support environmental protection measures  (Article 38). For pollution control, enterprises are exhorted to prioritise waste utilisation through waste disposal technologies to reduce pollutant generation (Article 40).  Enterprises are obliged to manage environmental pollution, including from waste (Article 41).

On 19 January 2020, the Government of China took huge steps to eliminate single use of plastic waste through a document that seeks to further strengthen the control of plastic pollution (NDRC, 2020; Waste360, 2020). China’s plastic demand is, by volume, the biggest in the world. As the global leader in polymer import market, especially polyethylene, China determines the global plastic business (Waste 360, 2020).

The document is a joint proposal of China’s National Development Reform Commission (NDRC) and the Ministry of Ecology and Environment (Waste360, 2020). In general, the document aims to prohibit production, sale, and use of certain types of plastic while encouraging degradable and recyclable plastic alternatives (Xinhua Net, 2020). The plastics in the banned category include the ultra-thin shopping bag (thickness less than 0.025 mm) and the polyethylene agricultural mulch (thickness less than 0.01 mm) (NDRC, 2020).

The regulation has three main objectives, divided into three phases: 2020, 2022, and 2025 (Table 1).

Table 1. Objectives and Followed Actions of China’s New Regulation to Control Plastic Pollution

Source: NDRC (2020), Waste360 (2020).

The following mechanisms will be applied to enforce plastic pollution control. First, multi-party cooperation in e-commerce takeaway platforms, sanitation section, recycling companies, and other relevant stakeholders will be promoted. Second, standardisation, centralisation, and industrialisation of plastic waste resource will be fostered to enhance the level of plastic waste utilisation. Third, actions will be performed to clean up plastic waste in rivers, lakes, harbours, and beaches as well as chemical plastic packaging in farmland (NDRC, 2020).

Besides changing the system, scientific and technical support will be strengthened regarding environmental risk of different types of plastics, pollution mechanism, monitoring, prevention and control technologies, and others.  Lastly, the regulation will be supported by all regions and relevant departments so that the objectives can be achieved in the given time (NDRC, 2020).

Two regions in China have regulations on plastic waste reduction and solid waste management.

The Province of Jilin enacted on 1 January 2015 the Regulation on the Prohibition of Production, Sales, and Provision of Disposable Non-Degradable Plastic Shopping Bags and Plastic Tableware (UNEP, 2018). This regulation restricts the production and sale of non-degradable plastic shopping bags and plastic tableware (Article 1). The regulation asks relevant stakeholders to be responsible in improving recycling activities and facilities (Article 8).  It also requires shopping malls, shops, and markets’ organizers to monitor the implementation of the plastic ban (Article 9). Penalties are imposed on those who break the regulation (Article 11).

The City of Shanghai, which is the biggest industrial and commercial city in China with a high population density, has an experience in implementing environmental law (Lianghu et al., 2014). Since early 2019, Shanghai has adopted the Shanghai Domestic Waste Management Regulations, with waste separation as one of its main highlights. The regulation lists four categories of waste separation: recyclable wastes, harmful wastes, wet rubbish, and dry rubbish (Article 4). Several municipal departments are involved in enhancing municipal solid waste management practice and developing comprehensive cooperation mechanism (Article 5). Individuals are asked to actively support green living, waste reduction and separation, and domestic garbage management. Shanghai has a domestic garbage disposal fee system to set the prices for domestic waste disposal (Article 7). Government institutions, enterprises, and hotels are encouraged to use environment-friendly products and eliminate the use of disposable cups (Article 21 and 22). The regulation requires waste classification, collection, transportation, and disposal (Article 28, 29, & 30).

At the end of 2016, the State Council of China endorsed the Notice of the “13th Five-Year Plan” Ecological Environmental Protection Plan. The 13th plan has three main objectives: environmental quality enhancement, comprehensive management affirmation, and amendment of environmental issues acceleration (China Water Risk, 2016). The third chapter of the plan, which focuses on green development, includes issues related to recycling, such as China’s promotion of pilot projects on recycling industrial waste materials, including plastics, to encourage the circular economy. New recycling mechanisms such as internet + recycling and smart recycling are also encouraged to broaden producers’ responsibility. The plan expects utilisation of industrial waste by up to 73% by 2020. This movement goes hand in hand with the country’s mission to support green technology, where recycling and utilisation of wastes are greatly strengthened. For general waste treatment, discussed in Chapter V, acceleration and improvement of discharge facilities play a fundamental role in enlarging waste treatment coverage in urban and rural areas. This can be done by advancing landfill treatment, fly ash disposal procedure, and methane utilisation. Incineration is targeted to be increased up to 40% by 2020. The sixth chapter of the plan discusses reduction of environmental risks, including hazardous waste. By 2020, more efforts will be employed to deal with the production, storage, utilisation, and disposal of hazardous waste. Finally, chapter 7 highlights the 25 priorities of national environmental protection projects. Governance of rural waste management is included as a priority project, covering waste utilisation and improvement of waste treatment facilities.

The Presidential Decree of the Republic of Indonesia Number 83 Year 2018 on Marine Debris Management, launched in September 2018, created the National Coordination Team on Marine Debris Management. The team is chaired by the Coordinating Minister for Maritime Affairs and the Minister of Environment and Forestry, who serves as the daily chairman. The coordination team also include 14 ministers, cabinet secretaries, and the head of the Maritime Security Agency as members (Table 1).

The coordination team is to (1) coordinate the activities of the ministries, non-ministerial institutions, regional governments, communities, and/or private sector on marine debris management; (2) make policies to surmount obstacles and solve problems regarding marine debris management; and (3) coordinate the monitoring and evaluation of action plan implementation.

Table 1. Members of the National Coordination Team on Marine Debris Management

Source: Government of Indonesia (2018).

The National Action Plan for Marine Debris Management for 2018–2025 is attached in the presidential regulation and specifies each ministry’s role. For example, the Ministry of Industry is in charge of encouraging the growth of the recycling industry and the industry to produce degradable plastics. The Ministry of Maritime and Fisheries Affairs is in charge of, for example, constructing waste-handling facilities at fishing ports and organising movements to clean up beaches and seas. The Ministry of Public Works and Housing is in charge of waste collection infrastructure on river and waste management facilities, and stipulation of plastic waste usage as additive in road construction.

Presidential Decree No. 83/2018 oversees marine debris management and originates from the Government of Indonesia’s initial target of reducing marine plastic waste by up to 70% by 2025. Comprehensive and integrated actions are needed to achieve this goal. The National Action Plan for Sea Waste Management for 2018–2025 aims to reduce the amount of waste, particularly plastic waste, in the ocean. The plan’s strategy consists of a national movement to increase awareness; encourage land- and sea-based waste management; reinforce funding, institutional, monitoring, and legal mechanisms; and promote research and development (Article 2). The institutional arrangement of the plan is described in Articles 3 to 9.

Indonesia has several laws and regulations on waste management:

Act of the Republic of Indonesia No. 18/2008 Regarding Waste Management defines waste management as waste reduction and handling (Article 19), including by reducing, recycling, and reusing waste (Article 20). Waste can be separated, collected, transported, and processed (Article 22).

Law No. 32/2009 on Environmental Protection and Management focuses on hazardous waste management, which covers waste reduction, storage, collection, transportation, utilisation, and treatment (Article 1) (Damanhuri, 2017). Discharging waste into the environment is allowed following standards and as permitted by the Minister (Article 20), while dumping without a permit is restricted (Article 60). Importation of waste or hazardous waste is strictly prohibited (Article 69).

Government Regulation No. 81/2012 on Household and Household-like Waste Management focuses on technical management of municipal solid waste, using the reduce, reuse, recycle (3R) principle (Damanhuri, 2017). Reducing the use of plastic bags is specifically mentioned (Article 11).

Regulation of the Minister of Public Works of Indonesia Number 03/PRT/M/2013 on Implementation of Infrastructure and Facilities in Handling Household Waste and Other Types of Household Waste calls for an integrated waste management plant (tempat pengolahan sampah terpadu) for dumping, sorting, recycling, processing, and final processing of waste (Article 1[16]), including plastic (Article 15[5]).

Presidential Decree No. 97/2017 on the National Policy and Strategy on Household and Household-like Waste Management focuses on the reduction and handling of household and household-like waste (Article 3). The decree cites national policies and national, provincial, district, and municipal strategies.

Presidential Decree No. 58/2017 regarding Amendments to Presidential Decree No. 3/2016 on the Acceleration of the Implementation of the National Strategic Project includes waste-to-energy projects in Jakarta, Tangerang, Bandung, Semarang, Surakarta, Surabaya, Denpasar, and Makassar in national strategic projects (Annex).

Presidential Decree No. 35/2018 on the Acceleration of the Development of Waste-to-Energy Installations with Environmental-based Technology aims to create upstream-to-downstream integrated waste management to enhance public health and environmental quality, while drastically reducing the amount of waste through conversion of waste into energy (Article 2). Besides the eight regions mentioned in the previous presidential decree on waste-to-energy installations, this decree adds South Tangerang, Bekasi, Palembang, Manado (Article 3).

Two regions in Indonesia implement regulations to reduce the use of single-use plastic.

Bali Province aims to cut the amount of plastic waste in oceans through Regulation of the Governor of Bali No. 97/2018 on Restrictions on the Generation of Disposable Plastic Waste. Targets are disposable plastics, i.e. plastic bags, styrofoam, and plastic straws (Article 4). The regulation calls for producers, distributors, suppliers, business enterprises, and providers of disposable plastics to switch to new replacement products (Articles 6 and 7). The regulation calls on individuals to do the same (Article 9) and on communities to stop using disposable plastic in their daily lives and perform preventive actions (Article 14). Administrative penalties will be imposed on those who break the regulation (Article 22 and 23).

Bogor Municipality implements Regulation of Mayor of Bogor No. 61/2018 on the Reduction of the Use of Plastic Bags. All shopping centres and modern stores are strictly prohibited from providing plastic bags starting 1 December 2018 (Article 11) and must strive to provide alternatives to plastic bags. Everyone is obliged to reduce the use of plastic bags and strongly encouraged to speak out against plastic bags’ danger to the environment (Article 13).

Indonesia has set an ambitious target to reduce marine plastic debris by 70% in 2025. To achieve that, the country launched Indonesia’s Plan of Action on Marine Plastic Debris 2017–2025, which consists of five main pillars.

1. Behavioural change improvement

   Relevant stakeholders are responsible for maintaining the effectivity and effectiveness of marine plastic debris management. The Coordinating Ministry for Maritime Affairs has promoted partnerships between ministries and non-governmental stakeholders across the country.

2. Land-based leakage reduction

   Considering that a huge amount of plastic waste from streets and housing ends up in the ocean, the Government of Indonesia is promoting research and production of plastic alternatives to minimise the negative impacts of plastic pollution on the marine ecosystem and human beings.

3. Sea-based leakage reduction

   Besides land-based sources, marine plastic pollution can be generated from sea-based sources such as ships, fishing lines, and pleasure boats. This effort will directly collect plastic debris using technology and will be supported by promoting waste management facilities in ports, improving environmental awareness, and involving small islands and coastal areas.

4. Reduction of plastic production and use

   This effort aims to encourage plastic producers to switch to using recycled plastic and produce more biodegradable plastics.

5. Funding mechanism enhancement, policy transformation, and law enforcement

   Regional and national budgets are planned to be the main source of funding for the national action plan. However, it is expected that international organisations and partner countries can take part in funding the project. Collaborations between ministries, non-governmental stakeholders, and cross-sector actors are encouraged to achieve the project’s target.

The five pillars above are broken down into several strategies:

1. At the local level, the river catchment authority should filter plastic waste from the river. Municipalities should manage waste properly. Other activities being promoted are improving human and funding resources, infrastructure management, and behavioural change, and creating integrated coastal waste management.

2. At the national level, the government is reorganising relevant agencies to deal with upstream landfill. Several activities are also promoted, such as enhancement of stakeholders’ awareness through education and campaign; promotion of waste-to-energy projects; enforcement of regulations on paid plastic bags; utilisation of plastic waste for useful materials; and enhancement of plastic waste regulation in seaports, shipping, and fishing lines.

3. At the international level, bilateral and regional cooperation will be encouraged.

4. Industrial sectors  are encouraged to use biodegradable plastics and acknowledge the circular economy concept. The biodegradable plastic industry is expected to receive foreign investment.

5. The involvement of academics and community service organisations is promoted to foster innovations for new and efficient technologies to deal with the marine plastic problem.

Realising the seriousness of the marine plastic issue and the need to take innovative action, the Government of Indonesia partnered with the Global Plastic Action Partnership in early 2019 to launch the National Plastic Action Partnership (NPAP). The main goal of NPAP is to support Indonesia’s National Action Plan on Marine Debris to reduce marine plastic debris by 70% in 2025. In the longer term, NPAP has a more ambitious goal – to reach near-zero plastic pollution by 2040.

The principal task of NPAP is to involve multiple stakeholders, such as government, industry, and civil society, to work together to reduce marine plastic by 70% by 2025. NPAP has formulated five points of action:

1. Reduce or replace the use of plastic to keep plastic consumption to 1 million tonnes by 2025.

2. Upgrade the design of 500,000 tonnes of plastic products and packaging to accommodate reuse or high-value recycling.

3. Increase the plastic collection rate from 39% to 84% by 2025 by fostering state funding and informal or private sector collection systems.

4. Double recycling capacity up to an additional 975,000 tonnes per year by 2025.

5. Develop controlled waste disposal facilities to manage an additional 3.3 million tonnes of plastic waste per year by 2025.

Ten movements aim to accelerate the five actions above:

1. Reduce or substitute plastics through policies, targets, and incentives.

2. Shift to 100% recyclable, reusable, and compostable plastics.

3. Enforce solid waste management plans as well as their implementation, initiatives, and monitoring.

4. Create an integrated and supportive waste and recycling system for informal waste workers and companies.

5. Create co-funded industries.

6. Promote capital investment for infrastructure and funding of waste management.

7. Arrange capacity building, training, and skills development.

8. Foster public engagement and behaviour change activities.

9. Facilitate innovation and incubation of new solutions.

10. Expand collaboration between stakeholders.

Based on the Act on Promoting the Treatment of Marine Debris Affecting the Conservation of Good Coastal Landscapes and Environments to Protect Natural Beauty and Variety 2009, coordination in Japan was developed in the form of a council for promotion of measures against marine litter. Table 1 lists the ministries and agencies under the council and their responsibilities.

Table 1. Ministries and Agencies Under the Council and Their Responsibilities

Source: Government of Japan (2009); Ministry of the Environment (2018).

Article 12 states that coordination shall also be enhanced within local governments, business entities, the public, and private organisations, not only in coastal areas but also in all regions. The coordination mechanism is based on the basic policy formulated by the national government.

On 31 May 2019, Japan reinforced its commitment to lead global collaboration through the Ministerial Council on Marine Plastic Litter. Prime Minister Shinzo Abe stated that Japan will exercise leadership in resolving the marine plastic litter issue (Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet, 2019). ‘We intend to lead worldwide efforts strongly by fully utilising our experiences and technologies in our efforts to contribute to the world, such as extending support to capacity building of developing countries, and to understand the actual situation both domestically and globally,’ said Prime Minister Abe in a speech. The Prime Minister mandated the relevant ministries to work on this issue thoroughly, following the approved action plan.

Japan has several laws and regulations on tackling marine plastic debris.

The Basic Environmental Law (Law No. 91 of 1993) includes the responsibility of corporations to dispose of waste. Article 8(2) states: ‘In manufacturing, processing or selling products, or engaging in other business activities, corporations are responsible for taking necessary measures for ensuring proper disposal of the wastes generated from products and other goods related to their activities, so as to prevent interference with environmental conservation, pursuant to the basic principles.’ In support of this, the national government shall facilitate such efforts. Article 23(2) states: ‘The State shall take necessary measures to promote projects which contribute to prevent interference with environmental conservation, i.e. the construction of public facilities such as sewerage, public waste disposal facilities, traffic facilities (including transportation facilities) which contribute to reduce the environmental load, and other projects such as improvement of forests.’

The Basic Act on Ocean Policy (Act No. 33 of 27 April 2007) emphasises the formulation of the Basic Plan on Ocean Policy. A responsibility of the national government, the Basic Plan on Ocean Policy shall prescribe the basic policy of measures and the measures that the government shall comprehensively and systematically implement with regard to the oceans (Article 16). The Basic Plan on Ocean Policy shall also adopt the principle of marine conservation, including securing ocean biodiversity by preventing the discharge of waste into the ocean (Article 18).

The Act on Promoting the Treatment of Marine Debris Affecting the Conservation of Good Coastal Landscapes and Environments to Protect Natural Beauty and Variety (Act No. 82 of 15 July 2009) sets the basic principles for measures required for the smooth treatment of marine debris and control of its generation. Article 17 states that any coast manager or possessor of coastal land that is not a coast manager must take measures required for the treatment of marine debris in maintaining the cleanliness of coastal land under their management. The measures must involve the cooperation of the prefectural government in terms of technical advice and other support, and of the municipal government as necessary. The revision of this Act was promulgated in June 2019, encouraging business owners to refrain from using microplastics in products (including microbeads) that could leak into rivers, areas of public waters, or areas of the sea (Government of Japan, 2019).

Japan imposes several laws and regulations that apply the concept of reduce, reuse, and recycle (3Rs) and extended producer responsibility (EPR). Table 1 summarises the measures related to 3Rs and EPR in each law and regulation.

Table 1. Laws and Regulations Related to 3Rs and EPR

Source: Government of Japan (1991, 1995, 1998, 2000, 2002, 2012).

Japan passed the Act on Promotion of Resource Circulation for Plastics in June 2021. Expected to take effect by 1 April 2022, the act aims to take measures to promote resource circulation for plastics, targeting all entities involved in the entire life cycle of plastic-containing products, from design to waste disposal. The measures will fall into five key aspects:

1. Guidelines for design of plastic-containing products

2. Rational use of specified plastic-containing products

3. Sorted collection and recycling by municipalities

4. Collection and recycling by manufacturers, sellers, and other businesses

5. Waste reduction and recycling by waste-generating businesses.

Japan has 47 prefectures and 1,724 municipalities (Kimura, 2019). The Act on Promoting the Treatment of Marine Debris Affecting the Conservation of Good Coastal Landscapes and Environments to Protect Natural Beauty and Variety (Act No. 82 of 15 July 2009) mandates prefectural governments to formulate regional plans to manage marine debris. The preparation of the regional plan shall consider opinions from residents, relevant local governments, coast managers, and other interested parties. A council for the promotion of measures against marine debris should be established to undertake this mandate and carry out administrative works. The council consists of prefectures, residents, private organisations, relevant administrative agencies, and local governments.

Local governments implement some good practises such as Plastic Smart Campaign, Resource Circulation Strategy for Plastics, and Clean Ocean Material Alliance (Ministry of the Environment, 2019). Through the Plastic Smart Campaign, citizens are encouraged to use plastic wisely. The Resource Circulation Strategy for Plastics was initiated in May 2019 to comprehensively promote plastic resource circulation.

Japan formulated the National Action Plan for Marine Plastic Litter in May 2019. Focusing on the efforts to prevent outflow of plastic litter to the ocean, this action plan elaborates effective measures in eight fields.

1. Waste-processing system that ensures proper collection and disposal

2. Prevention of littering, illegal dumping, and unintentional spilling of waste into the oceans

3. Collection of scattered waste on land

4. Collection of plastic litter in the oceans

5. Innovation in development of and conversion to alternative materials

6. Cooperation with stakeholders

7. International cooperation for promoting measures in developing countries

8. Consideration on actual situations and accumulation of scientific knowledge

Japan has developed the Resource Circulation Strategy for Plastics. The strategy has set milestones based on the concept of 3Rs+Renewable and divided into three major efforts: reduce single-use plastic, reuse or recycle plastic, and use recycled material or biomass plastic. Table 1 lists these milestones.

Table 1. Milestones Towards Resource Circulation Strategy for Plastics

Source: Teraishi (2019).

Japan is aiming for zero emission of marine plastics by promoting beautification and cleaning activities, curbing outflow of microplastics, collecting marine debris, and preventing illegal dumping (Teraishi, 2019). Raising public awareness to realise a sound material-cycle society is essential to ensure that efforts will be successfully adopted.

Several ministries and organizations are involved in Republic of Korea’s National Marine Litter Management Committee (Table 1)

Table 1. Republic of Korea’s National Marine Litter Management Committee

Source: Kim, 2021

Despite being a relatively small country in terms of landmass, Republic of Korea’s development experience illustrates the pollution problems many countries face. Korea’s successful rapid industrial and economic growth is considered one of the most remarkable capitalist development stories. In a matter of decades, Korea’s economy transformed from an impoverished agrarian economy to a modern industrial economy (Kim and Song, 2007). After the Korean War ended, Korea underwent rapid industrialization, exploiting natural resources and releasing enormous amounts of pollution into the air and waterways (Han, 2015).

Under Park Chung-Hee’s (1963-1979) authoritarian presidency, the economy was labor-intensive, relied on the heavy chemical industry, and was driven by export-led growth. The government and chaebol groups, Korean family-led business conglomerates, pushed for economic growth and ignored the impact that the rapid development had on the environment. Domestic environmental movements were suppressed, and environmental problems were not reported since the government tightly controlled the media. In the 1970s, environmental groups existed only for victim compensation, but they were local, disorganized, and ineffective (Moon and Lim, 2002).

The end of the Park regime opened Korean society, allowing civil movements to emerge with renewed strength (Kim and Song, 2007). In the 1980s, under President Chun Doo-Hwan’s regime, environmental groups and movements started to mobilize against pollution from industrial areas, the Environment Administration was created, and victims of environmental injustice were compensated and/or relocated (Ku, 1996). In 1987, during the transition to democracy from the Chun regime, the government’s control of information on environmental issues was loosened, environmental problems were more visible, government responsiveness to public concerns increased, and stakeholders were mobilized to address environmental issues (Moon and Lim, 2002). Following industrialization and increased observations of debris in coastal areas, the Korean government and its citizens became more attentive and pressured to address environmental issues, including marine debris (Sung et al., 2005). This broader mobilization prompted the first significant governmental response to coastal plastic pollution.

In the 1990s, responding to the enormous masses of trash found near the coast, Korea enacted trailblazing marine litter management strategies and technologies to address coastal litter. Most of the land-based marine debris originates from large cities like Incheon, Seoul, and Busan and flows out of the Han River, Keum River, Youngsang River, Seomjin River, the Nakdong River, among others, during the summer flooding season (Cho, 2005). Korea’s fishing and aquaculture industry was identified as the primary culprit of releasing large quantities of marine debris (i.e., derelict fishing gear) at sea as well as polluting coastal waters with Styrofoam buoys, nets, and nylon ropes (Kang et al., 2001; Cho, 2005; Jang et al., 2014). Government surveys demonstrated a loss of fishery productivity due to marine debris by 10-20 percent and 20-30 percent loss in aquaculture productivity (Cho, 2005).

Korea’s investment in managing marine debris continued into the 21st century. In a 2008 Korean national survey, Styrofoam buoys accounted for more than 10% of marine debris collected from beaches. Participant workshops with fishers, governmental organizations, and NGOs identified a “lack of understanding on the negative impacts of Styrofoam marine debris” and economic and social incentives as one of the causes that lead to the intentional discard of buoys by fishers (Lee et al., 2015).

In 2012, land-based litter accounted for approximately 36% of the total marine debris at sea and coastal areas, where ocean-based industries, explicitly fishing and aquaculture, accounted for most of the marine debris at sea and in coastal waters (Jang et al., 2014; Russi, 2016). In 2018, 176,000-tons of marine debris were generated by the Korean peninsula; 67% of the debris was land-based, and 33% was sea-based, whereas less than 10% of the total is foreign-based (Cho, 2018). Most of the land-based debris originated from natural disasters (i.e., construction and wood debris), while sea-based debris was derelict fishing gear.

In 2010, over 64% of the Korean population lived in coastal and riverine areas (Jung et al., 2010). As a response to increasing coastal populations and concerns of marine debris outflows, the central government has implemented nationwide coastal cleanups, stricter regulations on waste management, and marine waste buyback programs (Jung et al., 2010; NOWPAP CEARAC, 2013; Hong et al., 2013).  The growing concern about plastic pollution has pressured the Korean government to implement more aggressive policies to regulate the release of microplastics into Korean waters. According to a Korean national survey conducted by Greenpeace in 2016, most Korean participants displayed concern about microplastic pollution and specified that the national government should implement microplastic policies. Furthermore, in a survey of the Seoul metropolitan area, most participants expressed concern about the impacts of microplastics and were willing to pay to remove them along with aggressive government policies (Choi and Lee, 2018).

The 2007 Marine Environment Management Act

• The regulation aimed to preserve and manage the marine environment by preventing, collecting, and reducing marine litter (MOF, n.d.). In Article 2.4, “waste” is defined as a ‘substance which is useless in such form when discharged into the sea and which adversely affects or is likely to affect the marine environment’. The definition of ‘litter’ is critical in creating a comprehensive plan.

• Article 24.1 legally requires the Ministry of Ocean and Fisheries (MOF) to draft and establish a National Plan for Marine Litter Management every five years. The MOF and Korea Marine Environment Management Corporation enforce the plan and participate in the monitoring of marine litter. The Korean Coast Guard and Ministry of Environment are included but not required to participate in the drafting of the plans.

• Article 24.1 was deleted on December 3rd, 2019, and reassigned to the 2020 Management Act of Marine Litter and Contaminated Marine Sediment Act

• This regulation, however, failed to clearly define plastic waste and microplastics. It also did not promote inter-ministerial coordination and collaboration and did not include the total amount of marine litter.

The 2020 Marine Garbage and Contaminated Marine Sediment Act

• The passage of the Marine Garbage and Contaminated Marine Sediment Act, hereafter, the Marine Litter Management Act (MLM Act), addresses the limitations of the 2007 Marine Environment Management Act and enforces strict measures to prevent the flow of land-based litter into the ocean, and demands experts to clearly define microplastics and plastic waste. Furthermore, it places more pressure on the prevention and reduction meanwhile promoting regulatory interventions such as the ‘polluter pays’ principle. The MLM Act also created the National Marine Litter Management Committee, which consists of relevant agencies and organizations that must coordinate marine litter management. The act establishes a legal basis for inter-ministerial coordination as well as prevention and reduction of marine litter.

The abandoned fishing gear contributed to more than half of Korea’s marine debris. Realizing the issue, the Democratic Party of Korea held a forum to discuss the main contents of the current fishing gear management policy and the improvement tasks to solve the problem. There was a need for continuous efforts to lead fishermen to recognize the problem and participate in it. Since there were practical difficulties in addressing overuse issue, it was suggested that the management should be strengthened while creating a way for fishermen to participate. In particular, it was proposed to ensure clean-up of the fishing grounds and rest time through the total recovery of fishing gear during the subject-species taboo period, and to realize systematic management. Since it took a long time to improve the management of abandoned fishing gear and it was difficult to persuade stakeholders, it was suggested that it is necessary to lead the fishermen to participate in the improved policy based on the consensus of the fishermen on the seriousness of the problem. The current amendment to the Fisheries Act submitted to the National Assembly might not solve all the problems of abandoned fishing gear, but it was essential because it could be a starting point for improving the domestic fishing gear management system.

The First National Marine Litter Management Plan (2009 – 2013)

• The allocated budget for this plan was USD 240 million (Cho, 2018)

• This plan aimed to prevent the flow of litter into the environment, increase public and international coordination and collaboration, improve collection and disposal facilities via the investment in treatment centers and floating debris containment books, and increase management efficiency.

• Unfortunately, the First National Marine Litter Management Plan failed to reach government coordination, allocate sufficient funds to relevant agencies and marine litter projects, reduce the output of plastic, and utilizing regulatory policy instruments (i.e., EPR).

The Second National Marine Litter Management Plan (2014 – 2018)

• The allocated budget for the second management plan was USD 330 million (Cho, 2018)

• It aimed to expand marine debris removal projects and facilities, improve marine litter management centers, increase the management of marine litter sources, and establish education programs to increase awareness.

• This plan failed to manage land-based sources, establish strict regulatory preventative policies, and publish data on marine litter collection and disposal.

The Third National Marine Litter Management Plan (2019 – 2023)

• The allocated budget for the third management plan was USD 880 million

• This plan is responsible to increases focus on land-based, ocean-based, and foreign-based sources, improve marine litter transportation services, expand disposal and recycling facilities, increase public awareness, and strengthen management.

• Unlike the former two management plans, the issues of this plan have not been evaluated since it is still in action.

The Third River and Estuary Litter Management Plan (2021 – 2025)

• Drafted and enacted by the Ministry of the Environment in December 2020, this plan created and enforced a legal basis for collecting and disposing of marine litter in the riverine and estuarine environments. It places partial responsibility for collecting marine litter from land-based and nearby-coastal sources. It promotes investment in integrated technological and management solutions. This plan presses for role-sharing mechanisms between the local government, relevant national agencies, and local communities and organizations. The plan creates clear definitions of management responsibilities and advances budget management mechanisms.

The First Framework on Marine Litter Management (2021 – 2030)

• The framework aims to improve the collection and disposal of marine litter, expand facilities to prevent marine litter, invest in a life cycle approach towards marine debris, and increase coordination among relevant stakeholders.

• It was created following the enactment of the 2020 Marine Litter and Contaminated Marine Sediment Act

• In more detail, the action plan covers two main concerns: marine litter and marine pollution sediment. For marine litter matter, there are promotion strategies, 16 tasks, and 40 detailed projects that are highlighted in the action plan for the next 10 years (Table 1).

Table 1. Detailed Action Plan for Marine Litter Matter

Source: Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries, n. d.

Meanwhile, for the marine pollution sediment, there are 5 promotion strategies, 13 tasks, and 24 detailed projects (Table 2).

Table 2. Detailed Action Plan for Marine Pollution Sediment

Source: Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries, 2021

The Ministry of Public Works and Transport (MPWT) and the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MoNRE, established in 2011) are responsible for solid waste management in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR). Although with less authority over solid waste issues than MPWT, MoNRE has become a bridge for international activities in the solid waste sector in the country (Global Green Growth Institute, 2018). Other ministries that manage solid waste are the Ministry of Public Health, for medical waste management; the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, for regulations on composting from the agricultural sector; the Ministry of Communications, Transport, Posts, and Construction (MCTPC); and the Ministry of Energy and Mines, which does not have specific role in solid waste management at present but is expected to play a vital role in transforming waste into energy (Global Green Growth Institute, 2018; Khanal & Souksavath, n.d.).

Lao PDR established the Science, Technology, and Environment Organization (STENO) after the 1992 Rio Earth Summit. Based on Lao PDR’s environment protection law, STENO will manage solid waste at the national level, and environmental management and monitoring at the ministerial, provincial, special zone, municipal, district, and village levels. At the provincial level, the Department of Communications, Transports, Posts, and Construction, which works under MCPTC, manages solid waste with STENO (Khanal and Souksavath, n.d.).

As the waste management issue has only recently surfaced in Lao PDR, the country does not yet have regulations on general waste management (MoNRE, 2012). However, Lao PDR has several legal frameworks related to solid waste management:

1. Environmental Protection Law No. 29/NA 2013

   Enacted in 2012 as a revised version of the Environmental Protection law No. 02-99/NA 1999, this law requires individuals or organisations that potentially emit pollutants to take measures to prevent environmental degradation caused by several materials, including waste (Article 25). The separation of general waste should be based on recycling, reuse, reprocessing, and elimination. Treatment of toxic and hazardous waste encompasses dumping, burning, cremation, burying, or elimination (Article 38). The law restricts importation of toxic and hazardous waste. Specific regulations apply to business enterprises and hospitals that produce hazardous waste (Article 39).

2. Industrial Waste Discharge Regulation No. 180/MIH 1994

   This regulation aims to manage threats from the disposal of industrial waste or wastewater that can detrimentally impact water quality, health, and human life (Article 1). Any solid materials, including plastic bags, are prohibited from being disposed of into the  environment and public water sources (Article 3 number 3.3). Additionally, industries treating their waste should follow the standard set by the regulation (Article 8).

3. Law on Industrial Processing No. 10/PO 1999

   Wastes from manufacturing must be discharged based on methods and locations set by regulations (Article 19).

4. Decree on Waste Management for Healthcare Facilities (No. 1706/MOH, 2/7/2004)

   This regulates several actions related to waste from healthcare facilities, such as the mechanism of waste separation (Article 8), collection and storage (Article 9), management and internal relocation (Article 10), and collective storage and length of time (Article 12 and 13) (Sato et al., 2018).

At the local level, campaigns are the dominant mode in reducing plastic waste. In 2016, The Asia Foundation launched the ‘Love Laos: Keep it Clean’ campaign that aims to inspire people to stop littering and encourage recycling and composting. Several cities are targets of this movement,  including Bolikhamxay, Luang Prabang, and Khammouane. The campaign was started by establishing waste management projects in several schools and communities. The projects included financial opportunities and education on subjects like selling materials for recycling and using organic material for fertiliser in vegetable gardens. A short movie competition was held in 2016 to raise awareness on waste, littering, and improper waste discharge. All these are expected to lead to more sustainable habits (Handerson, 2017).

The Faculty of Environmental Science at the National University of Laos, the Hanoi University of Sciences, and other organisations collaborated in ‘SEA Plastic Edu Rasmus+ Project’, a project to minimise plastic use and enhance the quality of environment. Targeting government officials, the private sector, teachers, and students, the project consists of training on plastic recycling and plastic exchange management, lessons on characteristics and use of plastic waste, ways of managing waste, and recycling and examination of different types of plastic waste (Bubphanouvong, 2019).

The city of Luang Prabang, a tourist destination, conducts campaigns, through its tourism industry, to reduce the massive number of plastic water bottles. Hotels, tour operators, restaurants, cafes, and museums provide refill stations for free or cheaper drinking water. Several businesses have started to ban plastic bottles through the Refill Not Landfill activity. Some businesses have been asked to switch from plastic to non-plastic reusable bottles to involve tourists in efforts to reduce plastic waste (The Laotian Times, 2018).

MoNRE (2012) set the National Environmental Strategy to 2020 and the Environment Action Plan 2006–2010 to focus on seven programmes. However, none specifically targets waste management. The National Pollution Control Strategy and Action Plan 2018–2015 with Vision to 2030, however, covers several environmental issues, including solid waste management. The overall targets of solid waste management in this action plan consist of development of policies and recommendations for industries that could potentially endanger the environment, local institutional reinforcement at provincial and local levels, capacity and infrastructure improvement for strategic solid waste management, and revenue generation from recycling and recovery facilities (MoNRE, 2017).

Besides an environment-based action plan, waste management is discussed in the Renewable Energy Strategy to 2025, in which the waste-to-energy sector is a main concern as Lao PDR faces long-term higher demand for renewable energy. Renewable energy is expected to contribute up to 30% of Lao PDR’s energy sources by 2025 (MoNRE, 2012).

Malaysia’s Roadmap Towards Zero Single-Use Plastics 2018–2030 first addressed the establishment of an institutional framework and governance mechanism to combat single-use plastic pollution issues including marine plastic litter. Through the Ministry and Environment and Water (KASA) (formerly the Ministry of Energy, Science, Technology, Environment and Climate Change [MESTECC]), the Federal Government leads the implementation of the Roadmap by undertaking the necessary coordination among the stakeholders. The State Governments play major role in implementing the actions proposed in the Roadmap, through respective Local Governments that are under the purview of the Ministry of Housing and Local Government (Kementerian Perumahan dan Kerajaan Tempatan [KPKT]) and the Ministry of Federal Territories (Kementerian Wilayah Persekutuan [KWP]). A team is formed as the government coordination mechanism, which is divided into a joint ministerial committee and joint steering committee.

Taking on the major functions of the coordination team, the Joint Ministerial Committee provides an overall direction for the roadmap implementation; ensures that all actions are implemented timely and effectively; monitors the progress towards goals and targets set; facilitates the implementation of actions among the states, districts, and local governments; provides an avenue for inter-agency planning amongst the state agencies; and identifies means to strengthen cooperation between the Federal and the State Governments. The membership structure of the committee is as listed in Table 1.

Table 1. Membership Structure of the Joint Ministerial Committee

Source: Government of Malaysia (2018).

On the other hand, the joint steering committee plays role to ensure that the coordination team functions well; collects and reviews inputs from the institutions, committees, and forums to further assess the effectiveness of the implementation of actions; ensures that resources are mobilised in a timely manner; resolves conflicts; and mobilises ad-hoc taskforces for specific issues. The membership structure of the committee is as listed in Table 2.

Table 2. Membership Structure of the Joint Steering Committee

Source: Government of Malaysia (2018).

From a broad perspective of plastic management in Malaysia, different ministries and government agencies are involved from upstream to downstream along the entire plastic value chain (Table 3).

Table 3. Ministries and Authorities Along the Plastic Value Chain in Malaysia

Malaysia has several basic national policies, laws and regulations, which are directly and indirectly related to waste (including hazardous waste) management.

National Policy on the Environment 2002 was set up for continuous economic, social, and cultural progress and enhancement of the quality of life of Malaysians through environmentally sound and sustainable development. The policy aims to (i) provide  a clean environment, safe, healthy, and productive environment for present and future generations; (ii) conserve the country’s unique and diverse cultural and natural heritage with effective participation by all sectors of society; and (iii) sustain lifestyles and patterns of consumption and production.

National Solid Waste Management Policy was first introduced in 2006, and revised later in 2016. It aims to establish a solid waste management system that is holistic, integrated, cost-effective, sustainable, and acceptable to the community with emphasises on the concept of waste management hierarchy.

National Green Technology Policy 2009 aims to significantly improve energy, buildings, water and waste management, and transport. In the water and waste management sector, it provides strategic thrusts on the adoption of green technology in the management and utilisation of water resources, wastewater treatment, solid waste, and sanitary landfill.

National Cleanliness Policy 2019 outlines 14 strategies and 91 action plans within 2020–2030, grouped into five clusters: awareness of cleanliness, environmental sustainability, circular economy, governance and enforcement, and quality and skilled human capital. One of the strategies in circular economy cluster is implementing extended producer responsibility (EPR) to promote recycling through an EPR implementation plan, an EPR roadmap, reverse vending machine, and stakeholder engagement platform.

Environmental Quality Act 1974 mentions provision on prohibition and control of pollution (Part IV), including restriction on pollution of the atmosphere (Article 22), the soil (Article 24) and inland waters (Article 25), prohibition of discharge of wastes into Malaysian waters (Article 29), prohibition on open burning (Article 30), power to require occupier to install, operate, and repair (Article 31). Article 29 states that ‘[n]o person shall, unless licenced, discharge environmentally hazardous substances, pollutants, or wastes into the Malaysian waters’.

Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 2005 classify scheduled wastes. Rags, plastics, papers or filters contaminated with either inorganic or organic constituents (SW 410) is classified as the scheduled waste, which requires treatment, disposal or recovery at prescribed premises.

Promotion of Investments Act 1986 gives fiscal incentives for the manufacture of biodegradable packaging and household ware as well as waste-recycling activities listed as promoted products and activities (UNEP, 2018). Manufacturers and promoters of such products and activities are eligible for pioneer status and investment tax allowance.

Solid Waste and Public Cleansing Management Act 2007, part IV, states that any solid waste management services and facilities or any public cleansing management services require a licence from the Director General of Solid Waste and Public Cleansing Management. Chapter 30(1) of part V states that ‘[t]he Minister may from time to time prescribe, either separately or as a consolidated rate, controlled solid waste charges, fees, or levy which shall be paid by (a) the owner; (b) the occupier; (c) the local authority; or (d) any other person, to whom solid waste management services are provided under this Act’. In line with part IV, part VIII states that all controlled solid waste shall be deposited, treated, kept, stored, or disposed of only at licenced solid waste management facilities. In addition, any person in possession of any controlled solid waste shall take all reasonable measures to prevent the escape of any controlled solid waste from his possession. Reduction, reuse, and recycling efforts are enhanced by imposing several requirements in part X, including a take-back system and deposit refund system. Malaysia has, since September 2015, enforced mandatory solid waste separation, especially at the source of waste, in Kuala Lumpur, Putrajaya, Johor, Melaka, Negeri Sembilan, Pahang, Kedah, and Perlis (Yusof et al., 2019).

In line with the laws and regulations implemented in the national level, some States and Local Governments have enacted their policies or local by-laws and implemented various initiatives in addressing the plastic issues.

Local Governments who have not adopted the Solid Waste and Public Cleansing Management Act 2007 (e.g., Selangor, Penang), have their own decision-making power as the Local Governments, following the Local Government Act 1976. The States that have adopted the Act on the other hand, are controlled by the National Solid Waste Management Department and Solid Waste and Public Cleansing Management Corporation under the Ministry of Housing and Local Government.

As a State Government, for instance, Selangor has declared every Saturday a ‘No Plastic Bag Day’ since 1 January 2010, charging RM0.20 for each plastic bag provided to the consumers. The State aims to reduce the use of plastic bags and to increase consumer awareness of the negative impacts of using plastic bags (Kamaruddin and Yusuf, 2012). From 01 January 2017, Selangor has further strengthened their initiatives and have enforced plastic bag-free 7 days a week including the ban of the use of polystyrene containers, in which the violators would face a fine of up to RM1,000. The initiatives were later extended to single-use plastics ban in all government agencies and “no plastic straw” policy from 01 July 2019.

While in Penang, the State Government has implemented their own state-wide “No Plastic Bag 1.0” even earlier since 2009. Penang was the first state to introduce the ‘No Free Plastic Bags’ campaign, starting on 6 July 2009, with the no-free-plastic-bag-on-Mondays ruling (Jamil and Mustakim, 2011). It was extended to 3 days a week on 1 January 2010 and every day on 1 January 2011 for hypermarkets, supermarkets, pharmacies, fast-food outlets, nasi kandar [curry rice] restaurants, and convenience stores (including petrol stations) (Penang Green Council, 2019). The collected RM0.20 charge for each plastic bag use is donated to the Hardcore Poverty Fund to assist the poor. Penang brought the initiative one step further with a 3-month trial of a policy in July 2019 of not providing plastic bags to shoppers on Mondays even if they are willing to pay the RM 0.20 charge (The Star, 2019). The ‘No Plastic Bag Day’ was extended to every Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday starting from October 2020. Since 01 January 2021, the charge for plastic bag from Thursdays to Saturdays was increased to RM1.00 each (Penang Green Council, 2021).

On 01 April 2019, Kedah joined the movement by imposing a ‘No Plastic Bag Day’ every Friday and Saturday by charging a fee for plastic bags given to consumers. Plastic bags, straws, and styrofoam are also banned. Restaurants, hawkers, and convenience stores must follow the ‘no straw by default’ policy, except for vulnerable people or young children who may still need to use straws (Kwong Wah, 2019).

Future efforts should be harmonised with the action plans as targeted in Malaysia’s Roadmap Towards Zero Single-Use Plastics 2018–2030. For instance, the Roadmap cites the role of Local Governments in utilising compostable garbage bags for garden waste collection and in collecting pollution charges. Local Governments hold the key to achieving the Roadmap targets, possibly through different approaches, the success of which should be brought to the national level.

The Ministry of Energy, Science, Technology, Environment and Climate Change (MESTECC) of Malaysia (currently known as the Ministry of Environment and Water [KASA]) published Malaysia’s Roadmap Towards Zero Single-Use Plastics 2018–2030 on September 2018. Target items and measures on the Roadmap are listed in Table 1.

Table 1. Target Items and Measures on Single-Use Plastics

Source: Government of Malaysia (2018).

During phase 1 (2018–2020) of the Roadmap implementation, several key policies have been adopted in Malaysia. These include: (a) limiting SIRIM eco-labelling only for biodegradable and compostable packaging, excluding oxo- and photo-degradable packaging, (b) plastic bag pollution charge (RM0.2 each), and (c) no straw as default.

Specific to single-use plastics, other identified actions are introducing incentives on eco-friendly products, revising eco-labelling on plastics, and formulating a circular economy roadmap for bottles, single-use plastics, and others.

On 27 January 2022, KASA issued the National Marine Litter Policy and Action Plan 2021–2030 (NMLPAP). The plan highlights priority areas and actions to address marine litter pollution in Malaysia. The purpose and objective of the NMLPAP is to guide national actions to address marine litter, as follows:

1. Address marine litter pollution through robust policy development.

2. Document concrete steps ahead on tackling marine litter pollution based on scientific evidence and lessons learnt from international, regional, and local efforts.

3. Coordinate efforts at every level of the federal government, state government, local government, as well as public, private, and social sectors.

4. Foster further research and innovation to prevent, monitor, and tackle marine litter pollution.

5. Deploy and implement cutting-edge technologies and innovation backed by strong national standards and guidelines, as well as a strengthened institutional and legal framework to ensure that Malaysia is at the forefront of global efforts to tackle marine plastic pollution.

6. Promote sharing of best practices and lessons learnt, whilst enhancing regional and international cooperation, and creating awareness and instigating behavioural change.

7. Increase access to finance and facilitate private sector engagement to promote investment, trade and market creation, and market-based incentives in industries and activities that enable marine litter management and prevention.

The NMLPAP will be coordinated and implemented by KASA, which will serve as the focal point in cooperation with key stakeholders, target groups, and responsible agencies. Three working groups are expected to be formed under a national steering committee headed by KASA, focussing on science and technology; policy; and communication, education, and public awareness. The NMLPAP contains six desired national outcomes, to be implemented through 17 identified actions and 103 key activities, under five priority pillars  (Table 2).

Table 2. Identified Actions in National Marine Litter Policy and Action Plan 2021–2030

Source: Government of Malaysia (2022).

The implementation of the actions stipulated in the NMLPAP are reflected in a timeline shown as a roadmap, divided into short term (2021–2023), medium term (2024–2027), and long term (2028–2030).

Alongside the Roadmap and the NMLPAP, Malaysia has developed a Plastic Sustainability Roadmap 2021–2030, launched on 10 December 2021. One of its mandates is to enhance plastic circularity through EPR, with a national target towards the mandatory implementation by 2026.

EPR adoption will be initiated by considering the readiness and capabilities of the private sector, especially small and medium-sized enterprises. In the first two years, the government will advocate for EPR adoption through various capacity-building activities (e.g. establishment of a think tank, establishment of a technical working group for data-sharing platform) and INSPiRE programme (by showcasing private companies’ success stories to catalyse a sustainable plastic value chain). After such inception phase, voluntary EPR will be implemented in 2023–2025.

Managed by the assigned producer responsibility organisation, obliged companies will contribute through an eco-modulated fee to manage their post-consumer waste. The fee may vary based on production volume and turnover, as well as the material and its recoverability and recyclability. To guide a transition to mandatory EPR implementation in 2026, an EPR governance framework will be developed starting from 2022, incorporating the EPR target, responsibilities of each stakeholder, eco-modulated fee structure, and mechanism for product improvement.

The Roadmap also sets some reasonable national targets:

1. Phasing out problematic single-use plastics

2. 25% post-consumer plastic packaging to be recycled by 2025

3. 100% recyclability of plastic packaging by 2030

4. 15% average recycled content by 2030

5. 76% average collected-for-recycling rate by 2025

6. Post-consumer halal recycled polyethylene terephthalate standards by 2022.

Several ministries oversee solid waste management in Myanmar (Table 1).

Table 1. Ministries in Charge of Solid Waste Management in Myanmar

Source: Premakumara et al. (2017); Ministry of Health the Republic of Union of Myanmar (2014).

Solid waste management in Myanmar is a prime responsibility of the City Development Committee through its Department of Pollution Control and Cleansing, which is in charge of managing household, industrial, medical, and hazardous wastes. Its other departments, such as Playground and Garden, City Planning, Inspection and Agriculture, plan and implement waste management (ECD and MONREC, 2017Premakumara et al., 2017).

Myanmar enacted its first environmental policy in 1999 to integrate environmental governance and national economic development programme (UNDP, 2016). As new environmental challenges arise, Myanmar is formulating a new national environmental policy called the National Environmental Policy of Myanmar to reinforce three principles: clean and healthy environment, sustainable development, and environmental protection and management. In the first principle, a zero-waste approach will be applied. Waste will be minimised from the source since it is more cost effective than recovery action. Entities will be compelled to promote clean production.

Besides its national environmental policy, Myanmar has other regulations closely related with marine environment and solid waste management.

National Sustainable Development Strategy for Myanmar (2009)

The section on environmental quality management and enhancement states that a solid waste management programme and environmentally sound management of toxic chemicals and hazardous waste must be promoted.

Environmental Conservation Rules (2014)

Chapter IX of the rules deals with waste management. The Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry, in coordination with government departments and organisations, is responsible for specifying hazardous waste derived from industry, agriculture, mineral production, livestock and fisheries, waste disposal, and other activities (Article 41).  They are also responsible for supporting the development of facilities to manage solid and liquid waste as well as gas emissions that contain hazardous materials (Article 42). Industries that generate hazardous waste are to establish waste treatment facilities. The Environmental Conservation Department is responsible for monitoring and reporting industries that violate the rule (Article 45). At an individual level, all persons are prohibited from emitting, disposing, and piling up hazardous waste at any place where it can directly or indirectly harm the surrounding environment (Article 69a). No one should perform any activity that might damage the environment (Article 69b).

Environmental Impact Assessment Procedure (2015) 

The Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry shall determine waste management practices, encompassing limit of types, categories, and amount of waste, method and system of waste collection, storage, handling, transport, treatment, and disposal, and recycling or reuse of waste (Article 89) (Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry, 2015).

Local governments in Myanmar have no specific regulations addressing marine environment or solid waste management. However, the city of Mandalay has conducted public campaigns and environmental education to foster the implementation of the reduce, reuse, recycle (3R) scheme. Through the Mandalay City Development Committee, the city has banned, since 2009, the production, trading, and utilisation of thin plastic bags. The committee has promoted alternative products, such as string bags and boxes and baskets made of leaves, to counteract the excessive use of plastic (Premakumara et al., 2017)

In the city of Yangon, the Clean Yangon Campaign group manages the campaign to raise awareness of plastic’s environmental impacts. Besides raising awareness of environmental degradation, the campaign focuses on fostering recycling plastic products to reduce waste. The ultimate goal of the campaign is to create Clean Yangon. This movement somehow has become a trendsetter as other movements, such as Clean Pyinmana, Clean Aunglan, and Clean Mandalay, have started to grow. Similar collective movements are expected to eventually create Clean Myanmar (Aung, 2018).

In another case, the United Nations Environment Programme, the Myanmar Responsible Tourism Institute, and Thant Myanmar have conducted training series on plastic reduction, targeting the cities of Bagan, Mandalay, and Nay Pyi Taw, the three major tourism destinations in Myanmar. The training is to create awareness of plastic pollution, support practical solutions, and investigate challenges in plastic management to achieve sustainability. This action is rooted in the fact that Myanmar has a huge amount of wastes, exacerbated by poor waste management systems, leading to pollution of waterways and death of birds and marine species. Forty-five hotels have committed to this action (Mizzima, 2018).

In 2017, Myanmar issued the National Waste Management Strategy and Action Plan for Myanmar (2017–2030). Table 1 shows the strategic goals and action of this plan.

Table 1. Goals of the National Waste Management Strategy and Action Plan for Myanmar

Source: ECD and MONREC (2017).

On a smaller scale, Mandalay City has launched the Waste Management Strategy and Action Plan for Mandalay City 2017–2030. As the second largest city in Myanmar, with a growing population and economy, Mandalay faces huge challenges in managing its waste.  The city has five strategic goals to create better waste management (Table 2).

Table 2. Five Strategic Goals of Waste Management in Mandalay City

Coordination in the Philippines on addressing specific marine plastic issues is limited as it is still developing the National Strategy on Marine Litter for the Master Plan on Marine Plastics Management. The country manages solid waste through the National Solid Waste Management Commission under the Office of the President. The commission has 14 members from government agencies and 3 members from the private sector. Table 1 shows the membership structure of the commission.

Table 1. Membership Structure of the National Solid Waste Management Commission

Source: EMB (2019).

The commission seeks to enhance the implementation of Republic Act (RA) No. 9003 or the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000, signed in 2001. At the national level, the commission prepares the National Solid Waste Management Framework with the Department of Environment and Natural Resources as chair, in coordination with the Department of Health and other concerned agencies, using the National Solid Waste Management Status Report as basis. At the local government level, coordination covers local solid waste management planning and management, technical and other capability building, incentive schemes, education and campaigns, and other related tasks. The commission is tasked to establish the National Ecology Center, which will serve as the centre of information, research, database, training, and networking services to implement the Act. The centre shall engage a multi-sectoral, multi-disciplinary pool of experts from the academe, business, and industry; inventors; practicing professionals; youth; women; and other concerned sectors.

The National Pollution Control Commission and the National Environmental Protection Council coordinate with each other although their responsibility for marine plastic litter is limited.

Presidential Decree No. 984 lists the responsibilities of the National Pollution Control Commission, one of which is to govern the issuance of permits for sewage work and industrial waste disposal systems. The commission is attached to the Inter-Agency Advisory Council, headed by a commissioner appointed by the President of the Philippines. The commission is composed of representatives from the departments of agriculture; health; industry; justice; labour; local government and community development; national defence; natural resources;  and public works, transportation, and communications; and the heads of the Laguna Lake Development Authority, National Economic and Development Authority, National Science Development Board, and Human Settlements Commission.

The National Environment Protection Council was established under Presidential Decree No. 1121 to focus on national environment protection measures, including those on used packaging and movement of controlled waste. The commission is composed of the President of the Philippines as chairman, the secretary of natural resources as executive officer, and, as members, the presidential assistant for development; the secretaries of public highways; local government and community development; industry; national defence; and public works, transportation, and communications; the heads of the Energy Development Board, Budget Commission, National Pollution Control Commission, National Science Development Board, and Human Settlements Commission; and the board of the Environmental Center of the Philippines.

Littering has been prohibited since 1975 through Presidential Decree No. 825. In 1976, Presidential Decree No. 979 declared as national policy the prevention and control of the pollution of seas by waste dumping. The National Pollution Control Commission promulgates the national policy on marine pollution whilst the Philippine Coast Guard enforces it. The plastic issue is addressed with a holistic approach to solid waste management under Republic Act (RA) No. 9003 (Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000). Section 2(a) of the Act intends the adoption of a systematic, comprehensive, and ecological solid waste management programme to ensure the protection of public health and the environment. Local collaboration is highly encouraged to support the Act. Section 13 of Article X of the 1987 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines states: ‘Local government units may group themselves, consolidate or coordinate their efforts, services, and resources for purposes commonly beneficial to them in accordance with law’. Section 33 of RA No. 7160 (Local Government Code of 1991) elaborates on technical guidance to this effort: ‘In support of such undertakings, the local government units (LGUs) involved may, upon approval by the sanggunian (legislative council) concerned, after a public hearing conducted for the purpose, contribute funds, real estate, equipment, and other kinds of property and appoint or assign personnel under such terms and conditions as may be agreed upon by the participating local units through Memoranda of Agreement’. Pursuant to Section 33 of RA No. 7160, Section 44 of RA No. 9003 mandates all provinces, cities, municipalities, and barangays, through appropriate ordinances, to consolidate or coordinate their efforts, services, and resources to jointly address common solid waste management problems and/or establish common waste disposal facilities.

RA No. 9003 mandates barangays and municipalities or cities to segregate and collect solid waste. The Technical Guidelines for Municipal Solid Waste Disposal are imposed in Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) Administrative Order No. 49 Series of 1998. Section 10 of the RA No. 9003 says the barangay will be responsible for biodegradable, compostable, and reusable wastes, provided that the municipality or city shall be responsible for non-recyclable materials and special wastes. In support of the mandate, the provincial solid waste management board (chaired by the provincial governor) and the city and municipal solid waste management board shall be established (Sections 11 and 12 of RA No. 9003). A main function of the provincial solid waste management board is to allow the clustering of LGUs to solve common solid waste management problems.

Ecological solid waste management shall be based on the following hierarchy (DENR, 2015):

• Source reduction (avoidance) and minimisation of waste generated at source

• Reuse, recycling, and resource recovery of wastes at the barangay level

• Efficient collection, proper transfer, and transport of wastes by city or municipality

• Efficient management of residuals and of final disposal sites and/or any other related technologies for the destruction or reuse of residuals

The barangay plays important roles in the second hierarchy. Section 32 of RA No. 9003 provides for the establishment of a material recovery facility in every barangay or cluster of barangays. The facility shall receive mixed waste for final sorting, segregation, composting, and recycling, whilst resulting residual wastes shall be transferred to a long-term storage or disposal facility or sanitary landfill (DENR, 2015). Section 37 of RA No. 9003 prohibits open dumping within 3 years after the effectivity of the Act and prohibits controlled dumping for 5 years following the effectivity of the Act.

To support RA No. 9003, the government enacted RA No. 9512 (Environmental Awareness and Education Act), which integrates environmental education in curricula at all levels of public and private schools; barangay day-care centres; preschools; and schools that offer non-formal, technical vocational, professional, indigenous learning, and out-of-school youth courses or programmes. Education will cover environmental concepts and principles; environmental laws; the state of international and local environments; local environmental best practises; the threats of environmental degradation and its impact on human well-being; the responsibility of the citizenry to the environment; and the value of conservation, protection, and rehabilitation of natural resources and the environment in the context of sustainable development.

Local governments have limited legal instruments to manage solid waste. Local governments are mainly directed to implement RA No. 9003 (Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000). They are mandated to consolidate or coordinate efforts, services, and resources to jointly address common solid waste management problems and/or establish common waste disposal facilities. The types of consolidation or coordination are the inter-government or inter-LGU partnership and the private enterprise utilised by LGUs. Both types of consolidation or coordination are implemented through memorandums of agreement or contracts.

Examples of partnership under the Act are manifested in several regulations issued by the municipality of Los Baños and Quezon City.

1. Municipality of Los Baños

Solid waste management, especially anti-littering and waste segregation efforts,  in Los Baños was given much attention in 2001 when its mayor started the solid waste management programme through Municipal Ordinance No. 2001-08 (Atienza, 2008). The ordinance mandates the strict implementation of waste and segregation scheme, collection schedules for biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes, and penalties for non-compliance. Municipal Ordinance No. 2008-752 was later passed to regulate the use of plastic bags and styrofoam. The ordinance prohibits the use of plastic bags for dry goods and controls the use of plastic bags for wet goods. The use of styrofoam is banned.

About 6 years after its implementation, the ordinance was expanded through Municipal Ordinance No. 2014-1316, (The Expanded Plastic Ordinance of the Municipality of Los Baños) (Los Baños Times, 2016), which now prohibits the use of plastic drinking straws, cups, plates, and spoons and forks.

2. Quezon City

The Quezon City government encourages all barangays to practise solid waste management through Ordinance No. SP-1203, S-2002 (Best Solid Waste Management Incentives in Barangays) (Atienza, 2011). This ordinance enables barangays to receive financial assistance from the city government for practising the best solid waste management. To avail itself of the assistance, the barangay must (1) have a comprehensive solid waste management plan prepared by the barangay and approved by the city, (2) have managed solid waste for at least 6 months and reduced the volume of solid waste by at least 25%, and (3) have an ecological or recycling centre or material recovery facility. Ordinance No. SP-1191, S-2002 offers incentives to barangays that use their own trucks to collect solid waste.

The National Solid Waste Management Commission Resolution No. 1441, Series of 2021, adopting the National Plan of Action for the Prevention, Reduction and Management of Marine Litter (NPOA-ML) was approved on 12 May 2021. The NPOA-ML was then adopted in August 2021 based on Memorandum Circular No. 2021-10 of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR). 

The NPOA-ML provides a blueprint to enhance efforts in resource and waste management and to bring an additional lens to marine litter issues and control additional leakage of waste into the bodies of water. It aims for ‘zero waste to Philippine waters by 2040’ towards the vision of ‘a Philippines free of marine litter through shared responsibility, accountability, and participatory governance

Two clusters of action have been classified: (1) programmatic cluster, which focuses on maximising common implementation of sectoral initiatives; and (2) enabling and cross-cutting cluster, which covers cross-sectoral initiatives. The clusters consist of 10 strategies and 35 actions (Table 1).

Table 1. Strategies and Actions in the National Plan of Action for the Prevention, Reduction and Management of Marine Litter

CHED – Commission on Higher Education; DA-BFAR – Department of Agriculture-Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources; DBM – Department of Budget and Management; DENR – Department of Environment and Natural Resources; DENR-BMB – Department of Environment and Natural Resources-Biodiversity Management Bureau; DENR-EMB – Department of Environment and Natural Resources-Environmental Management Bureau; DENR-ERDB – Department of Environment and Natural Resources-Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau; DepEd – Department of Education; DICT – Department of Information and Communications Technology; DILG – Department of the Interior and Local Government; DOF – Department of Finance; DOST – Department of Science and Technology; DOTr – Department of Transportation; DSWD – Development of Social Welfare and Development; DTI – Department of Trade and Industry; DTI-BOI – Department of Trade and Industry-Board of Investments; DTI-BPS – Department of Trade and Industry-Bureau of Philippine Standards; HEIs – higher education institutions; LGU – local government unit; MARINA – Maritime Industry Authority; MMDA – Metro Manila Development Authority; NCWC – National Coast Watch Center; NEDA – National Economic and Development Authority; NGAs – national government agencies; NSWMC – National Solid Waste Management Commission; PCG – Philippine Coast Guard; PCOO – Presidential Communications Operations Office; PIA – Philippine Information Agency; PPP Center – Public–Private Partnership Center; SUCs – state universities and colleges; TESDA – Technical Education and Skills Development Authority

Source: DENR (2021b).

Section 5 of the circular declares that all initiatives and targets provided in the NPOA-ML shall be translated into operational plan indicating targets until 2040. The DENR is authorised to coordinate partners in implementing and mainstreaming the NPOA-ML with the plans proposed by local government units and other government agencies.

Institutional capacity to support the operationalisation and localisation of the NPOA-ML will be strengthened through the UN–Habitat Philippines’ Healthy Oceans and Clean Cities Initiative (HOCCI) (UN–Habitat, 2021), a regional project funded by the Government of Japan.

HOCCI’s main objective is to localise the NPOA-ML in six partner cities in the Philippines (Manila, Calapan, Legazpi, Ormoc, Cagayan De Oro, and Davao). Many activities will be conducted, amongst which are (PACE, 2021):

1. Waste surveys using Waste Wise Cities Tool

2. Workshops of city stakeholders on 3Rs

3. Developing a marine litter action plan

4. Implementation of the pilot projects

5. Development of knowledge products, capacity-building, and/or information, education, and communication

6. Development of three policy papers

7. Monitoring and evaluation of progress in implementing the City Plan of Action on Marine Litter (CPOA-ML)

8. Sharing good practices, lessons learnt, and future actions.

The partner cities are developing their CPOA-ML, anchored on the 10 strategies of the NPOA-ML. They will be the first cities in the Philippines to have a localised version of the NPOA-ML.

Another related action plan is mentioned in Section 16 of RA No. 9003, which states: ‘Province, city or municipality, through its local solid waste management boards, shall prepare its respective 10-year solid waste management plans consistent with the National Solid Waste Management Framework’. The plan, which should substantially include all the components identified and mandated in RA No. 9003, shall be submitted for review and approval to the National Solid Waste Management Commission (DENR, 2015). An example of the proposed plan is the 10-year (2014–2024) solid waste management plan of the municipality of Rizal in Laguna Province.

The marine plastic litter issue is addressed by the Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment (formerly known as the Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources [MEWR]) through the National Environment Agency (NEA). NEA coordinates international and regional cooperation with different stakeholders. International coordination is usually facilitated by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. For example, as a part of the Singapore Cooperation Programme, established in 1992, NEA through the Singapore Environment Institute organised in March 2019 the Singapore–Norway Third Country Training Programme titled Regional Training Programme on Waste Management and Reduction of Marine Litter.  The programme aims to share the policy frameworks and practices adopted by Singapore and Norway in waste management and reduction of marine litter, focusing on plastics and microplastics, and to look into proven best practices in Southeast Asia and elsewhere (SCP, 2019).

Singapore designated 2019 as the Year Towards Zero Waste. The goal of becoming a zero waste nation would be achieved by reducing consumption of materials, and reusing and recycling them for a second lease of life (NEA, 2019).

NEA utilises the Environmental Protection and Management Act, Chapter 94A (Original Enactment: Act 9 of 1999). Part V, Premise 15, Number 1 states: ‘Any person who discharges or causes or permits to be discharged any trade effluent, oil, chemical, sewage or other polluting matters into any drain or land, without a written permission from the Director-General, shall be guilty of an offence’. Other pollutants may include land-based litter such as plastic waste. Conviction of failure to comply shall result in payment of a fine not exceeding S$5,000.

In accordance with the Act, another land-based litter prevention is provided in the Environmental Public Health Act Chapter 95 (Original Enactment: Act 14 of 1987). Part III Premise 19 Number (1) Letter (a) states: ‘Any person who drops, scatters, spills or throws any noxious liquid, dirt, sand, earth, gravel, clay, loam, manure, refuse, sawdust, shavings, stone, straw or any other similar matter or thing in any public place (whether from a moving or stationary vehicle or in any other manner) shall be guilty of an offence’. Meanwhile, Part III Premise 20 Number (1) states: ‘Any person who (a) dumps or disposes of any refuse, waste or any other article from a vehicle in a public place; or (b) uses a vehicle for the purpose of dumping or disposing of any refuse, waste or any other article in a public place, shall be guilty of an offence’. The Act was amended on 1 April 2014 to enable a mandatory reporting of waste data and submission of waste reduction plans by any owner, occupier, or lessee of a work place (any premises or place used for any industrial, trade, commercial or manufacturing purposes, including all construction sites, work sites, and farms).

In practise, the government is going beyond laws and regulations. Since it considers public education and awareness as the most essential factors, Singapore has conducted campaigns such as Clean and Green Singapore and Keep Singapore Clean Movement, programmes for corporations, schemes such as Clean Development Mechanism and Singapore Packaging Agreement, grants and funding such as Towards Zero Waste Grant, and many more.

Adopting the Extended Producer Responsibility framework, Singapore enacted on 04 October 2019 the Resource Sustainability Act 2019 (Act 29 of 2019), which includes regulatory measures on electrical and electronic waste (e-waste), packaging (including plastic) waste, and food waste.

Under the framework,  producers of electrical and electronic products are regulated through the Producer Responsibility Scheme (PRS), in which big producers supplying more than a specified threshold amount of regulated products to the local market will bear the costs of operating the scheme, including collection, treatment, and recycling of wastes. Overall implementation of the PRS will be managed by a licensed PRS operator appointed by the National Environment Agency (NEA). The PRS operator will be responsible in meeting collection targets, which are 60% of put-to-market (supply) weight for large household appliances such as refrigerators, air conditioners, and washing machines; and 20% for regulated consumer products such as printers, laptops, mobile phones, routers, lamps, and portable batteries (MEWR, 2019). Large retailers occupying a floor area of or more than 300 square metres must offer in-store collection of certain regulated consumer product waste and ensure its collection by PRS operators (Section 15). Producers of non-consumer products (e.g. commercial and industrial equipment marketed and sold to businesses, such as solar photovoltaic panels and servers) shall provide, upon request, free take-back from their clients of all their end-of-life products and send them to licensed waste collectors or e-waste recyclers (Section 13). These regulatory measures will be enforced starting 01 July 2021.

Manufacturers, importers, brand owners, and retailers of packaged products with an annual turnover of more than S$10 million shall report to the NEA their packaging data (Section 20), which shall consist of information on type of packaging material (e.g. plastic, paper, metal, glass); packaging form (e.g. carrier bag, bottle); and weight (MEWR, 2019). Producers will be required to submit plans to reduce, reuse, and recycle their packaging (3R plan), including details of key initiatives, key performance indicators, and targets. The 3R plan shall consider packaging reduction; packaging collection for reuse or recycling; outreach related to reducing, reusing, and recycling packaging; use of recycled content in packaging; and improvements in recyclability of packaging (MEWR, 2019). Producers will be required to submit progress of their plans in subsequent reports. These regulatory measures will be enforced starting 01 July 2020, with the first reporting submitted to NEA in 2021.

Owners and operators of commercial and industrial premises, including large hotels, malls, housing projects, and food manufacturers and caterers, are mandated to segregate their food waste for treatment (MEWR, 2019). This regulatory measure will come into operation in 2024.

Singapore has no specific local government that regulates the marine plastic litter issues. However, it works intensively with the 3P (People, Private and Public) sectors to reduce land-based litter. These sectors are equipped with the 3P Partnership Fund which encourages organisations and companies from these sectors to work together to develop innovative and sustainable environmental initiatives that promote environmental ownership amongst the local community (NEA, 2019).

As part of the effort to combat marine plastic litter, a Member of Parliament of Singapore proposed to the Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment (formerly known as the Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources [MEWR]) the ban of single-use plastic, However, MEWR (through its senior minister of state) and NEA both argued against it (Eco-Business, 2018), saying that the plastic litter issue should be tackled through public education and not through policy. Senior Minister Amy Khor emphasised that the government’s aim was to encourage consumers and businesses to reduce plastic use ‘beyond what the regulations require’. She explained that ‘[t]his process may take longer. But this is the right way; the positive effects will go beyond plastic bags, beyond packaging, beyond waste management to areas including climate action’. Meanwhile, NEA argued that since majority of residents live in high-rise buildings, plastic bags are still needed to hygienically dispose of their food waste or risk pest outbreaks.

Singapore has conducted several initiatives to reduce plastic use, including the Singapore Packaging Agreement, launched in 2007. This voluntary agreement within industries and non-governmental organisations to reduce packaging waste has successfully gathered 239 signatories and reduced a cumulative of 54,000 tonnes of packaging waste (NEA, 2019a; MEWR, 2019).  Major supermarket, such as NTUC Fairprice, have implemented rebates for consumers who bring their own shopping bags. Some retailers, such as Miniso, have started charging S$0.10 per plastic bag use.

Going forward, Singapore has released the Zero Waste Masterplan which maps strategies to achieve the vision of Zero Waste Nation (NEA, 2019b) (Table 1).

Table 1. Target Items and Measures on Plastic Waste

Source: NEA (2019b).

To reiterate the measures mandated in the Zero Waste Masterplan, in February 2021, Singapore released the Singapore Green Plan 2030. It is a whole-of-nation movement to advance Singapore’s national agenda on sustainable development. One of the key programmes of the Green Plan is creating sustainable living through a circular economy. Reducing the waste sent to the landfill by 20% by 2026, with the goal of reaching 30% by 2030, is the main target of this programme. To achieve this target, Singapore would be endorsing their NEWSand materials created from incinerated waste for construction purposes, while also increasing the recycling rate.

In conjunction with the World Environment Day 2022, the Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment launched the National Action Strategy on Marine Litter, which aims to galvanise a whole-of-nation effort to combat marine litter. It outlines six strategic focus areas tailored to the local context, each elaborated with some targeted measures (Table 2).

Table 2. Focus Areas and Measures in National Action Strategy on Marine Litter

Source: MSE (2022).

Several key authorities are working to solve the marine plastic litter issue in Thailand: these include the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment through the Pollution Control Department, Department of Marine and Coastal Resources, the Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning, the Department of Environmental Quality Promotion;, the Ministry of Public Health through the Department of Health;, the Ministry of Industry through the Department of Industrial Work;, and the Ministry of Interior through the Department of Local Administration and the National and Provincial Waste Management Committee.

The Pollution Control Department and the Department of Marine and Coastal Resources develop action plans, measures, and technical guidance. The Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning develops general policies and plans, supports their effective implementation, and monitors the effort to mitigate environmental impact. The Department of Environmental Quality Promotion inculcates social awareness and readiness to support the sustainability of the environment and natural resources. The Department of Health collaborates with the Pollution Control Department in formulating plans and standards. The Department of Industrial Work  deals with  the waste generated from the industrial sector. The Department of Local Administration allocates duties to local government authorities and helps them formulate plans. The National and Provincial Waste Management Committee approves outsourcing and any kind of private business engaged in municipal solid waste management.

The latest coordination of municipal solid waste management was developed under the new policy of educating people about the new national rules on municipal solid waste treatment. The effort is being undertaken by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, the Ministry of Education, and local administration organisations to raise awareness on waste segregation at source (Funatsu, 2019).

The coordination goes beyond governmental scope. The Thailand Public Private Partnership (PPP) for Plastic and Waste Management or PPP Plastic is a partnership between ministries and private organisations. It was established on 05 June 2018, led by Thailand Business Council for Sustainable Development and Plastic Industry Club of the Federation of Thai Industries, working to drive sustainable management of plastic waste with various sectors. So far in 2022, 39 organizations has joined, including government agencies, such as the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, the Ministry of Interior, the Ministry of Industry, Ministry of Higher Education, Science, Research and Innovation, and the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration; as well as private companies, international organizations, and educational institutes. PPP Plastic has a main goal in supporting and driving Thailand’s Roadmap on Plastic Waste Management 2018–2030 to achieve its target in reducing the amount of plastic waste in Thailand’s seas by 2027. It specifically aims to (1) reduce and eliminate the use of targeted plastics by using environmentally friendly products, and (2) reuse the targeted plastic waste at 100% by 2027.

Although Thailand has conducted several efforts to manage plastic waste, most remain voluntary actions with limited legal measures (Wichai‑utcha and Chavalparit, 2019). However, several legal frameworks support the effort.

First, the Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality Act B.E. 2535 (1992) is the fundamental environmental law that governs the planning for environmental management, monitoring environmental quality, and establishing the system for environmental impact assessment (Siriratpiriya, 2014). Section 23(1) of the Act cites grants to a government agency or local administration for investment in and operation of a central waste disposal facility, including the acquisition and procurement of land, materials, equipment, instruments, tools, and appliances necessary for the operation and maintenance of such facility. Section 80 requires waste disposal facility owners or possessors to submit a report summarising the functioning results of the facility.

Second, the Public Health Act B.E. 2535 (1992) provides local government the power and duty to prescribe rules, procedures, and measures to manage and maintain the collection, transportation, and disposal of sewage and solid waste with provisions of the ministerial regulation (Section 20). Section 7 states that local government may issue or amend local provisions and prescribe details of operation in the locality.

Third, the Act on the Maintenance of the Cleanliness and Orderliness of the Country B.E. 2535 (1992) regulates the prohibition on waste littering, including cars littering on roads (Section 13), places where grass or trees grow (Section 26), and littering on waterways and other public spaces (Section 31–33). As amended on 16 January 2017, the Act outlines the authority of local administration organisations to collect and manage waste under supervision of the provinces and the Ministry of Interior (Funatsu, 2019).

Fourth, the National Health Act B.E. 2550 (2007), especially Section 5, cites the right of every individual to live in a healthy environment and the duty to cooperate with state agencies (including national, provincial, and local governments) to create such an environment.

Fifth, the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand B.E. 2560 (2017), especially Section 58 declares that the State shall undertake a study and assess the impact on environmental quality and health of the people or community and shall arrange a public hearing of relevant stakeholders, people and communities in advance in order to let them consider before the actual implementation or granting of permission as provided by the law.

Local government in Thailand is divided into thesabans (municipalities) in cities, districts, subdistricts, and provincial administrative organizations (PAOs); tambons (rural) administrative organizations (TAOs); and special administrative areas, namely Bangkok, the capital and most urbanised city, and Pattaya, the biggest international tourist destination (Nagai et al., 2007). Local governments are generally responsible in handling and managing waste in their areas (Akenji et al., 2019).

Section 50(3) of the Thesaban (Municipal) Act B.E. 2496 (1953) declares that it is the responsibility of thesaban to clean roads, pathways, and public places and rid them of waste. Section 54(11) engages the local government to improve slums and keep them clean. Some famous cities such as Phuket and Hadjai are leading municipality models, with their stable financial backgrounds, and have introduced efficient methods of municipal solid waste management such as incineration. The duties of PAOs are specified in the Provincial Administrative Organization Act B.E. 2540 (1997). For tambons, the Tambon Council and Tambon Administrative Organization Act B.E. 2537 (1994) requires TAOs to keep roads, waterways, paths, and public places clean and to provide garbage and sewage services in their responsible area (Section 67[2]). As a special administrative area, Bangkok  implements the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration Act B.E. 2528 (1985) and Pattaya implements the Pattaya City Administration Act B.E. 2542 (1999) (Administrative Court of Thailand, 2013).

1. Bangkok Metropolitan Administration

The Public Health Act B.E. 2535 (1992) requires each local government to deliver power and handle municipal solid waste management in its jurisdiction (Section 18). The Bangkok Metropolitan Administration Act B.E. 2528 (1985), Section 89 (Manomaivibool, 2005) states: ‘Subject to other Laws, it is the duty of Bangkok Metropolitan Authority to do the following in its territory: …(4) maintain the country cleanliness and orderliness…, (14) develop and conserve the environment….’ The Bangkok Metropolitan Administration can impose detailed regulations on municipal solid waste management, including waste collection fees (Manomaivibool, 2005).

2. Pattaya City Administrative Authority

Section 62 of the Pattaya City Administration Act B.E. 2542 (1999) states: ‘Subject to this Act, it is the duty of Pattaya City Administrative Authority to do the following in its territory: … (7) keep the country clean and tidy, (8) disposal of waste and wastewater treatment ….” The Pattaya City Administrative Authority outsources solid waste management to a professional private contractor, which will provide all major phases of solid waste processing, such as collecting, transporting, and disposing (Anantanatorn et al., 2015). The Pattaya City Administrative Authority provides the Pattaya City Solid Waste Management Term of Reference 2015–2019 to regulate the service process, which includes some policies on three phases: employing door-to-door methods of garbage collection, garbage bulk tank stations, and big-container garbage stations; transporting in compacted volume; and disposing garbage into landfills that can handle 400–450 tonnes of solid waste (Anantanatorn et al., 2015).

Thailand has comprehensive action plans and roadmaps to tackle marine plastic litter, which indicates the country’s serious intention to combat this global issue. In May 2016, the National Solid Waste Management Master Plan (2016–2021) was created, and the responsibility for its implementation handed over to the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment and the Ministry of Interior. Table 1 lists the waste management targets in the master plan.

Table 1. Items and Targets on Waste Management

Source: Pollution Control Department (2016); Akenji et al. (2019).

To support the implementation of the master plan, authorities have developed follow-up actions, including activities, plans, and/or roadmaps. Table 2 lists follow-up actions in support of the master plan.

Table 2. Follow-up Actions to Support the Master Plan

Source: Weerathaworn (2013); Akenji et al. (2019); Wichai‑utcha and Chavalparit (2019).

Table 3 lists the step-by-step targets in the ‘Thailand’s Roadmap on Plastic Waste Management 2018–2030’.

Table 3. Detail Targets in the Thailand’s Roadmap on Plastic Waste Management 2018–2030

Source: Pollution Control Department (2018).

In November 2021, Thailand passed a resolution agreeing with Action Plan on Plastic Waste Management Phase I (2020-2022). Detail targets in the Action Plan are listed in Table 4. This Action Plan has developed measures, plans and projects that establish rules, regulations and procedures, including but not limited, to prevent dumping of waste into the sea and establish guidelines to prevent and address plastic waste issues in the sea for tourism business and marine transportation.

Table 4. Detail Targets in the Action Plan on Plastic Waste Management Phase I (2020–2022)

Source: Pollution Control Department (2021).

Several ministries are involved in waste management (Table 1).

Table 1. Ministries Responsible for Waste Management in Viet Nam

Source: Thang (2017).

The Viet Nam Environment Administration (VEA) works directly under the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment on national environment-related matters. Under VEA, the Waste Management and Environment Promotion Agency authorizes state waste management (Thang, 2017).

Viet Nam has several national legal frameworks on marine pollution and waste management:

Decree No. 59/2007 on Solid Waste Management

The decree regulates the management, rights, obligations, and activities related to solid waste (Article 1). Solid waste management has several basic principles (Article 4): first, entities that dispose of solid waste should pay the collection, transportation, and disposal fees; second, waste should be separated at source; third, technologies to process hard-to-decompose solid waste must be prioritised; and fourth, socialisation of a proper waste management must be promoted by the state. The rest of the decree regulates solid waste planning and investment (Chapter II); solid waste separation (Chapter III); solid waste collection, storage, and transportation (Chapter IV); solid waste disposal (Chapter V); expenses of solid waste management (Chapter VI); and inspection, monitoring, and violations (Chapter VII).

Circular No. 121/2008 on Guiding Incentive Mechanism and Financial Supports for Investment in Solid Waste Management

The circular mandates organisations and individuals that invest in waste disposal facilities to obtain permission to invest in solid waste disposal facility from the state agency, design investment to be in line with the local land use planning (under approval of relevant stakeholders), implement capable technology with economic and technical  efficiency, fulfil legal provisions on construction and environmental protection, and provide the right size and standards of solid waste disposal facilities according to the Prime Minister (Chapter II).

The Law No. 14/2010 on Environmental Protection Tax

Plastic bags are categorized as taxable objects (Article 3) and subject to an environmental tax of VND30,000–50,000/kg (Article 5).

Circular No. 12/2011 on Hazardous Waste Management

The circular classifies hazardous waste, describes hazardous waste management, and examines environmental impact assessments of hazardous waste management facilities (Article 1). Registered hazardous waste generators must fulfil the hazardous waste management practice conditions to obtain a license to manage hazardous waste, after which they must ensure various matters regarding management, such as vehicles and equipment, places to store the waste temporarily, and treatment (Article 9).

Decision No. 31/2014 on Support Mechanism for the Development of Power Generation Projects using Solid Waste(s) in Viet Nam

The decision states that the master plan to develop power plants using solid waste must refer to the solid waste potentials in each relevant period. The master plan also must be relevant to the social and economic condition of the country, regional master plan, and solid waste management master plan (under approval of relevant stakeholders) (Article 3). Investment in the project must conform with legal provisions on construction, fire prevention, and environmental protection (Article 6).

The Construction Law No. 50/2014

Solid waste collection and treatment facilities are categorized as technical infrastructure (Article 3, number 22). The Ministry of Construction is authorized to create technical regulation guidelines for specialized construction works (Article 6, number 6).

Law No. 82/2015 on Marine and Island Resources and Environment

Throwing waste on islands and sandbanks and in shallow zones is restricted (Article 41). Five actions are taken to manage marine and island environmental pollution: (i) performing preventive actions, (ii) setting sea areas as pollution-prone zones to implement effective solutions, (iii) controlling land- and sea-based waste by considering the capacity of the sea and islands, (iv) responding to and preventing the spread of pollution during environmental marine emergencies, and (v) cooperating with stakeholders to manage marine and island environmental pollution (Article 42). Hazardous waste must be managed based on the law on environmental protection (Article 45). Before it is disposed of in the sea, land-based waste from production, business, or daily-life activities must be controlled according to environmental technical regulations (Article 46). Potential sources of sea pollution should be rigorously managed. Regarding dumping waste into the sea, the regulation specifies the license that should be obtained, the allowed materials, the permits, the rights of parties that have obtained the permits, and management of dumping (Section 3, Chapter IV).

Decree No. 38/2015 on the Management of Wastes and Scraps

Plastic is considered reusable and recyclable waste (Article 15.) All recyclable waste shall be recycled and reused (Article 50). Importers of plastic scrap must pay a deposit, the amount of which depends on the volume of the scrap: 15% of total cost for scrap under 100 tons, up to 20% for scrap over 500 tons.

Environmental Protection Law 2020

The Environmental Protection Law 2020 was enacted to replace the 2014 regulation. Article 11 of the new law states that any disposal of waste into the marine environment must be examined thoroughly to meet the standard of environmental protection. Potential risks to seas and islands as well as exploitation activities that extract benefits from the seas and islands must be investigated and follow relevant laws. Stakeholders must coordinate to protect the marine environment.

Article 73 discusses plastic waste management, where organisations and individuals responsibly use and manage plastic waste, such as by limiting plastic use and disposing of waste into the environment. Plastic waste generated by the tourism sector and other marine services must be properly collected, stored, and distributed to recycling and disposal facilities. The use of environmentally friendly packaging as a substitute for plastic packaging must be supported by the relevant law. In general, plastic waste must be collected and properly classified. The state is responsible for promoting reuse and recycling, as well as encouraging research and development and policies for plastic waste management. The provincial government is responsible for directing collection and processing of waste at the local level. The relevant government should develop a road map to limit the production and import of single-use plastic products, non-biodegradable plastic packaging, and products containing microplastics.

In 2013, the People’s Committee of Hanoi City issued Regulations on Regular Solid Waste Management in Hanoi City Area No. 16/2013/QD-UBND. Solid waste management aims to reduce environmental and health impacts (Article 3). The Department of Construction and the Department of Natural Resources and Environment under the City People’s Committee are responsible for solid waste management. Dumping solid waste on sidewalks and roads and into drainage systems, rivers, lakes, parks, flower gardens, dike systems, and public areas is highly restricted. As inorganic daily-life solid waste, plastics should be collected, transported in a specific approved vehicle, and treated properly (Article 11).

Similar regulations were issued by other local governments.

In 2009, Viet Nam adopted the National Strategy on Integrated Solid Waste Management (up to 2025 with a Vision to 2050). Its main objective is to collect, reuse, recycle, and manage waste using progressive technology and to minimize the use of landfills by 2050. Table below summarizes the strategy’s targets.

Table 1. Targets of the National Strategy on Integrated Solid Waste Management to 2025, with a Vision to 2050

Source: Government of Viet Nam (2009).

In the case of marine plastic pollution, the Government of Viet Nam in 2020 launched the National Action Plan for Management of Marine Plastic Litter by 2030. The plan’s objectives are divided into two main periods (Table 2).

Table 2. Objectives of the National Action Plan on Marine Plastic Debris Management through 2030

The objectives above are broken down into three major solutions (Table 3).

Table 3. Solutions of the National Action Plan’s Objectives

In 2020, the Government of Viet Nam launched the National Action Plan on Sustainable Consumption and Production (2021–2030). Table 4 shows the objectives of the action plan related to waste or plastic waste management.

Table 4. Objectives of the National Action Plan on Sustainable Consumption and Production (2021–2030)

Aside from the goals that have been set, the Government of Viet Nam lists some priority actions, including developing ecological, sustainable, reuse-oriented, and recycle-oriented design; producing eco-friendly products; promoting ecolabelling and certification of ecolabels; and enhancing the circular economy for waste.